LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



r X 



^ *^ Shelf,.. 

UNITED STATES OF AMEEICA. 



X 



USEFUL INFORMATION 



FOR 



PRACTICAL MEN. 



COMPILED FOR 



THE REPAUNO CHEMICAL CO. 



^ 



BY 



WM. G. RAMSAY, Engineer. 



PRICE, OIVE DOLLAR. 



REPAUNO CHEMICAL C 

WILMINGTON, DEL. 




u\^^J 



T 'j' II ^^ 




fM 



^\ 



'^'^ 



Copyrighted 1893, by Wm. G. Ramsay. 



PRESS OF 

Mills, Knight & Co. 

BOSTQlf. 



PREFACE. 



The object desired by the writer in the following 
pages is to give, in a condensed and concise form, 
the general rules, tables, and a short description rela- 
tive to the general subjects that arise in the daily 
muctice of Practical Men on public works. 

The plan pursued has been to consult the most 
accessible standard authorities. 

The principal authorities consulted in compiling 
this little book are '' Trautwine^s Engineer's Pocket 
Book; " ^^Architects' and Builders' Pocket-Book," 
Kidder ; '' Engineers' and Mechanics' Pocket-Book," 
Haswell; ^^ Limes, Hydraulic Cements and Mor- 
tars," Gen'l Q. A. Gillmore ; " Wrought Iron and 
Steel in Construction," Pencoyd Iron Works ; 
'^ Useful Information for Engineers, etc.," New 
Jersey Steel and Iron Co.; *^ Useful Information 
for Architects, etc.," Phoenix Iron Co.; ^^ Light 
Locomotives," H. K. Porter & Co.; "Useful In- 
formation for Eailway Men," W. G. Hamilton; 
" Steam-Pumping Machinery," Geo. P. Blake & Co., 
New York; "Catalogue Pulsometer Steam Pump 

(iii) 



IV PREFACE. 

Co./' New York ; ^' Catalogue American Hoist and 
Derrick Co./' St. Paul; "Hoisting Engines, etc./' 
Lidgerwood Manufacturing Co., Kew York; "Some- 
thing about Culvert Pipe/' Blackmer & Post Co., 
St. Louis ; " Catalogue National Foundry and Pipe 
Co., Pittsburgh." 

These books represent the latest and best prac- 
tice. 

Great care has been taken in the following pages 
to verify all tables and rules given. 

Many of the rules, etc., are found in several 
standard authorities, and it would be impossible 
to credit them to any one source. 

When any special tables and rules occur in one 
work only, care has been observed to duly credit 
them. 

It would be well to add here, that all special 
machinery, etc., described, has been done solely on 
its merit) and unsolicited. 



INDEX. 



PAGE, 

Atlas Powder, (Dynamite) . . 15 

" " Absence of Danger 16 

" " Advantages . . 15 
" " Articles for Use 

with .... 27 
" " Blasting Iron in 

Founderies . . 22 
" " Boulder Blasting. 22 
" " Cartridges, Sizes, etc. 28 
" " Cartridges, to pre- 
pare .... 28 
" '' Caps for .... 27 
" " Charging ... 19 
" " Comparative Cost 20 
" '* Exploders (see 

Fuzes) ... 32 

" " Felling Trees . . 23 

" " Firing 19 

" " Fuse for ... . 27 
" "■ Fuse, Protection 

underwater . 28 

'' " Grades .... 17 

Ice-Work ... 20 
" " Log Jams, to 

Loosen ... 21 
*' " Mining .... 16 
" " Offices and Agen- 
cies 34 

" '- Ordering .... 33 
" " I'recautions . . 26 
" " Priming .... 28 
" " ' Properties ... 15 
" •' Results .... 20 
" " Rock Blasting . 18 
" " Rollwavs, To Loos- 
en .' ... . 22 
" " Safety (see ab- 
sence of danger) 16 
" " Seam-Blasting . 20 
" " Sub-Marine Blast- 
ing .... . 19 
" " Tamping ... 19 
'' " Tamping Rod . . 27 
" "■ Thawing ... 17 
" " Transportation . 

and Storage . . 16 

" Uses 16 

Alloys, Melting Point .... 11 

Algebraic Signs 13 

Anti-Friction Grease .... 145 

Arches 52 

Battery, Electric 30 

Beams, [ron and Steel 116, 117, 118 

Iron and Steel Floor . . 117 

"■ Iron, Rolled 117 

'' Iron, Spacing . . . . 118 

" Strongest Wooden . . 135 

" Wooden, Table . . . . 137 

Board, Measure, Table .... 133 

" and Timber Measure . 132 

Boilers 60 



PAGE. 

Bolts, Table 115 

Boulder Blasting 22 

Brass 114 

Brass, To Clean 143 

Bricks, Laying, per Day ... 58 

" Measurements of . . . 57 

" Number in a Wall . . 55 

" Mortar to Lav 1000 . . 58 

" Mortar to Lav 1 Cub. Yd. 44 

" Table, Number in a Wall 56 

" Table, Sizes 57 

Weights 57, 58 

Bricklayers' Memoranda ... 57 

Bruises, Remedies for .... 151 

Burns, Remedies for 151 



Cables 4, 131 

Caps 27 

Cars, Contractors' 100 

Cement, Lime, Mortar Concrete 

and Plaster 44 

Cement, Mortar 44 

Cloth to Leather . . . 145 

" for Joints 1 44 

" for Face Joints ... 144 

" for Rust Joints ... 144 

Chimnej^s 58 

Concrete ......... 45 

Cross-Ties 100 

Cinder in Eye 157 

Chafing 158 

Compositions of Metals ... 11 

Cord Wood, Weight 80 

Circles, Properties of ... . 7 

Table 7 

Contusions 151 

Cylinders, Capacity of ... . 8 

Centres for Arches 53 



Death, Tests of . . . 
Derrick, Memoranda 
Diarrhoea Prescription 
Drilling, Rock . 
Drills, Churn 

" Diamond 

" Hand . . 

" Jumper . 

" Machine 

" Percussion 

" Percussion, Runnin 
Drowning, Remedies 
Dynamite .... 



gof 



Earthwork, Etc 

'' To Calculate . . 

Earth, Etc., Weight per Cub. Yd 

'' Etc., Settlement . . . 

" Quantity to Ton . . . 

" Embankment, Cost of 
Effects of Heat on Substances 



157 

146 

158 

36 

36 

37 

36 

36 

37 

38 

39 

152 

15 

41 
42 
41 
41 
41 
42 
11 



(V) 



VI 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Electric Blasting Apparatus, 

Magneto-Machine 30 

Electric Blasting, Connecting 

Wire 32 

Electric Blasting, Fuzes or Ex- 
ploders 32 

Electric Blasting, How to Use 

Machine 81 

Electric Blasting, Leading Wire 32 

Engines, Hoisting 95 

" Steam, Duty of ... 80 

Exploders or Fuzes 32 

Explosives, Atlas Powder . . 15 
" Comparative Table of 14 
" Dynamite .... 15 
" High, Manufactur- 
ers of 15 

Fainting 157 

Feeding Properties of Vegetables 147 

Felling Trees 23 

Fire in a Building 157 

'' in Clothing 157 

" in Kerosene 157 

Flashings 142 

Floors, Assumed Loading . 1 17, 136 

" Iron Beams 117 

Freight Cars, Capacity .... 147 

Foundations for Machinery . . 54 

Glue, Leather to Iron .... 145 

" to Kesist Moisture . . . 144 

Grease, Anti-Friction' .... 145 

Green Logs 135 

Heat, Effect on Substances . . 11 

Hoisting Engines 95 

Horse-Power, Nominal ... 64 

'' Actual .... 64 
Horse, General Information 

About 64 

Hot Journals, To Cool .... 145 

Ice- Work 20 

Injured, First Aid to 149 

" Transportation of . . 150 

Injuries by Machinery . . . . 149 

by Cold 151 

" (See Special Injury) 

Insect Stings 157 

Interest, Short Method .... 12 

Tables 12 

Iron and Steel: To Prevent 

Rusting 143 

Iron Bolts, Table of 115 

" Cast, Weight per Cubic 

Foot 112 

Iron and Steel Beams 116, 117, 118 

'' " Shafting . . . 115 

" Nuts 114 

" Washers 114 

" Wrought, Flat, Square, and 

Round, Table Weights . 112 
Iron . Wrought, Weight per Cubic 

Foot 112 

Jams, Log, To Loosen .... 21 

Journals, Hot, To Cool .... 145 

Lathing, Wire 47 

Laths, Wood 47 

Lead, Memoranda 147 

Leading Wire 32 



PAGE. 

Length Tables ....... 3 

Lightning 157 

Lime 44 

Liquid Measure, Tables .... 6 
Light Locomotives, Light Back 

Truck 102 

Light Locomotives, Back Truck 103 
Light Locomotives, Light Four- 

Wheel Connected 104 

Light Locomotives, Six- Wheel 

Connected Mine 105 

Light Locomotives, Four- Wheel 

Connected Mine 106 

Light Locomotives, Compressed 

Air 106 

Light Locomotives, Hauling Ca- 
pacity 106 

Light Locomotives, Work of . . 106 
Light Locomotives, Suitable for 106 
Light Locomotives, for Contract- 
ors 110 

Lumber (See Wood) . .... 132 

Mad Dog Bite 157 

Masonry, Arches 52 

" Arches, Centres for . 53 
" Footing Courses ... 48 
" Foundations .... 48 
*' Foundations for Ma- 
chinery 54 

'' Piers 52 

" Proportioning Rules . 51 
" Retaining Walls . . . 51 
"■ Stones, etc.. Weight . 50 
" Working Strength . . 51 
" Ultimate Crushing Load 49 
Measures (see General Tables). 
Mensuration, Properties of Cir- 
cles 7 

" Table of Circles . 7 

" Polehedrons, Table 10 

" Polygons, Table . 11 

Solids 8 

" Surfaces 9 

Mining 16 

Mortar, Cement 44 

" Lime. 44 

" in Fortifications ... 46 

" Pointing ,46 

" To lay 1,000 Brick . 44 58 
'' To lay 1 Cubic Yard . 44, 47 

" Table 47 

Miscellaneous Information . . 146 

Nails and Tacks, Table . 138,139 

Nailing Memoranda 139 

Nuts, Table 114 

Packing, Air and Steam Tight . 143 

Patent Drawings 147 

Petroleum 87 

Piles 48 

Poisons and Antidotes .... 153 

Postal Information 159 

Plaster 47 

Plasterer's Memoranda . •. . 47 

Pointing Mortar 46 

Pitch of Roofs 148 

Pipe, Cast Iron 119 

" w n Tables . . . 85, 120 

ii n ii Culvert .... 119 

" Distance Below Sub-Grade, 120 

" Diameters 121 

" Steam, to Protect . . . . 121 



INDEX. 



Vll 



PAGE. 

Pipe, Terra Cotta 120 

" Terra Cotta, Table of Ca- 
pacity 120 

Pumping Machinery 66 

Pumps, Blake, General Princi- 
ples 66 

Pumps, Tank or Light Service . 68 

'' Mine 69 

" Mine, Tables .... 72 
'■'■ Independent Air and Jet 

Condenser 76 

'' Vertical Steam .... 77 

" Pulsometer 88 

Putty, to Soften 145 

Railroads, Narrow Gauge . . 99 

Rails, Weight of 99 

" Etc., Table 99 

" Wooden 100 

" Strap Iron 101 

Recipes 143 

Ropes, Strength . . . 123 to 131 
" Weight .... 123 to 131 

" Manilla and Hemp . . 131 

'' Wire 123 

" Standard Hoisting . 123 

" Tiller 123 

" " Transmission and 

Standing ... 124 

" " Galvanized Iron . 126 

" " Steel Flat . . . . 125 
'* " Notes on Use and 

Protection . . . 126 
" " Transmission of 

Power by . . . 128 

" on Inclined Planes . . 130 

Rock Blasting 18 

" Drilling 36 

Roofs, Slate 140 

" Galvanized Iron .... 141 

" Tin 141 

" Shingle 141 

" Tiles 142 

Roofing, General Rules . . . 142 

Flashings 142 

Sprains, Treatment 151 

Sound, to Measure Distance by. 13 

Steel (see Iron) 112 

Scantlings Reduced to B. M. .1 34 

Splice Joints 99 

Shafting 115 

Suffocation from Gas— Remedy. 157 

Steam, Useful Information of . 79 

•• Engines Duty .... 80 

Snake Bite 157 

Tramways and Narrow Gauge 

Railroads • 99 

Tramways, Rails, Weight of . . 99 

" Rails, Etc., Table . 99 

Splice Joints ... 99 



PAGE. 

Tramways, Cross Ties, Number 

per Mile .... 100 
" Cars, Contractors . 100 
*' Rails, Wooden . . 100 
" Rails, Strap Iron . 101 
Throat, Substance Stuck in . . 156 
Tables, Weights, Troy .... 1 
" " Apothecaries' . 1 
" '' Advoirdupois . 1 
" " Various Sub- 
stances ... 2 

'' Length 3 

" Circular and Angular 

Measure 4 

'' Square Measure ... 4 

" Cubic Measure . ... 5 
" Equivalents of a Cubic 

Foot 5 

'■'■ Measures of Volume . 6 

" Liquid Measure ... 6 

" Drj' Measure .... 6 

" Circles 7 

" Round Tanks .... 8 

" Polygons 11 

" Polehedrons 10 

" Weights and Specific 

Gravity Liquids . . 10 

" Interest 12 

Water, Feed, Table of Heating . 81 
" To find Diameter of Pump 
Cylinder to Move Cer- 
tain Amount .... 83 
'* To find Quantitv Ele- 
vated 83 

" To find H. P. Necessary 

to Raise 83 

" Capacities of Cylinders . 8 
" Comparison of Different 

Gallons 87 

" Wrought Iron Pipe, Table 84 

"■ Cast Iron Pipe, Table . 85 

" Friction in Pipes ... 86 

Welding Steel 144 

Wood, Board and Timber Meas- 
ure 132 

" Board Measure, Table . 133 
" Scantling Reduced to 

B. M . 134 

*' Lumber Weight per M — 

B. M 134 

*' Cord Wood, Weight and 

Fuel Value 80 

" Green Logs . . . . . 135 

*' Strongest Beam . . . 135 

'* Timber, Properties of . 135 

" Timber, Factors of Safety 135 
" Posts, Oak and Pine, 

Table 135 

" Beans, Table .... 137 

'' Floors, Loading .... 136 

Wire, Brass 122 

" Copper 122 

" Iron, Table 122 

Whitewash, How to Make . . 143 



Useful Information for Practical Men. 



GENERAL TABLES. 



TROY WEIGHT. 

24 grains = 1 pennyweight (dwt.). 

20 pennyweights = 1 ounce = 480 grains. 

12 ounces = 1 pound = 240 dwt. = 5,760 grains. 

Troy weight is used for gold and silver. 

A carat of the jewelers, for precious stones, is, in the 
United States = 3.2 grs. ; in London, 3.17 grs. ; in Paris, 
3.18 grs., divided into 4 jewelers' grs. In troy, apothe- 
caries', and avoirdupois, the grain is the same. 

APOTHECARIES* WEIGHT. 

20 grains (gr.) = 1 scruple (9). 

3 scruples = 1 dram (3) = 60 grains. 

8 drams = 1 ounce (oz.) = 24 scruples = 480 grains. 
12 ounces = 1 pound (lb.) = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 
5,760 grains. 

In troy and apothecary weights, the grain, ounce and 
pound are the same. 

AVOIRDUPOIS OR COMMERCIAL WEIGHT. 

16 drams = 1 ounce (oz.) =437^ grains. 
16 ounces = 1 pound (lb.) = 7,000 grains. 
100 pounds= 1 hundredweight (cwt.) 
20 hundredweight = 1 ton = 2,000 pounds. 

In collecting duties upon foreign goods at the United 
States custom-houses, and also in freighting coal, and 
selling it by wholesale : 

28 pounds = 1 quarter. 

4 quarters or 112 pounds = 1 hundredweight. 

20 hundredweight = 1 ton (long) = 2,240 pounds. 

A stone = 14 pounds. 

A quintal = 100 pounds. 



Z GENERAL TABLES. 

The following measures are sanctioned by custom or 
law: 

WEIGHT PER BUSHEL OP DIPFERENT 
GRAINS, ETC. 



Barley .... 48 lbs. 

Beans .... 63 

Buckwheat ... 46 

Blue grass seed . 14 

Corn 56 

Corn meal . . . 50 '' 

Clover seed ... 60 

Dried apples . . 22 

Dried peaches . . 33 



Flax seed ... 56 lbs. 

Hemp seed ... 48 

Oats 32 

Peas 64 

Rye ..... 56 

Salt 80 

Timothy seed . . 45 

Wheat .... 60 

Potatoes (heaped) 60 



WEIGHT PER BARREL OP DIPPERENT 

ARTICLES. 



Fish 200 lbs. 

Soap 256 '' 

Cement. ... 300 '^ 



Flour .... 196 lbs. 

Salt 280 " 

Beef 200 '^ 

Pork 200 *' 

56 pounds of butter = 1 firkin. 

100 pounds of meal or flour = 1 sack. 
100 pounds of grain or flour = 1 cental. 
100 pounds of dry fish = 1 quintal. 

100 pounds of nails = 1 cask. 

MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 

1 ton (2,240 lbs.) cured hay = 425 cubic feet. 

1 ton of hay in n.ow = { ^^J^^-^l ^ - ^ 

Hay as usually delivered = 5 pounds per cubic foot. 

*' well pressed =8 " " '* 

Straw, loose =Z\ '' " " 

'' well pressed = 5i '* " " 

1 gallon of water (U. S.) = 8.33 pounds. 
1 " " oil = 7f " 

1 *' " molasses = llf '' 

1 '' '' alcohol =6.9 " 

1 '' *' spirits of tur- ) _ ,, qi u 

pentine ) ~ 
1 keg of powder =25 " 

WEIGHTS, IN POUNDS, OP VARIOUS 

ARTICLES, 

As Rated by Railway Companies, ivhen their Weights cannot otherwise 

be ascertained. 

LBS. 

Ashes, pot or pearl barrel 450 

Apples, and barrelled fruits ... *' 200 
. bushel 50 



GENERAL TABLES. 



Barley 




bushel 


LBS. 

45 


Beef, pork, bacon 




) C hhd. 


1,000 


Butter, tallow, lard . 




> per < bbl. 


333 


Salt fish and meat . 




) ( firkin 


100 


Bran, feed, shipstuffs, oats 




bushel 


35 


Buckwheat .... 




(( 


48 


Bricks, common 




each 


5 


Bark 




cord 


2,000 


Charcoal 




bushel 


22- 


Coke, and cake meal 




u 


40 


Clover seed .... 




(( 


62 


Eggs 




barrel 


200 


Fish and salt meat . 




per firkin 


100 


Flour and meal . per bushel, 


56 pounds, barrel 


216 


Grain and seeds, not stated 




bushel 


60 


Hides (green) .... 




each 


85 


" (dry), salted or Spanish . 




a 


33 


Ice, coal, lime .... 




bushel 


80 


Liquors, malt and distilled 




barrel 


350 


u 




per gallon 


10 


Lumber — pine, poplar, hemlock 




. ft. B. M. 


4 


" oak, walnut, cherry, ash 


u 


5 


jS'ails and spikes 


. 


keg 


106 


Onions, wheat, potatoes . 


. 


bushel 


60 


Oysters . . per bushel, 100 pounds, per 1,000 


350 


Plastering lath .... 


, 


. per 1,000 


600 


Rosin, tar, turpentine 


. 


barrel 


300 


Sand, gravel, etc. 


, 


per cubic ft. 


150 


Shingles . . per M. , short 900 pounds, long 


1,400 


oaib ...... 




per bushel 


70 


Stone, undressed 




perch 


4,000 


" dressed .... 




. cubic ft. 


180 


Timothy and light grass seed . 




bushel 


40 


Wood — hickory 




cord 


4,500 


'* oak .... 




u 


3,500 



MEASURES OP LENGTH. 

12 inches = 1 foot. 
3 feet = 1 yard = 36 inches. 
5i yards == 1 rod = 198 inches =16^ feet. 
40 rods = 1 furlong -. 7,920 inches = 660 feet = 220 

yards. 
8 furlongs = 1 mile = 63,360 inches = 5,280 feet = 
1,760 yards =320 rods. 

Gunter's CHAiisr. 

{Sometimes used in Land Surveying.) 

7.92 inches = 1 link. 

100 links = 1 chain = 4 rods = 66 feet. 
80 chains = 1 mile. 



4 GENERAL TABLES. 

Ropes and Cables. 
6 feet = 1 fathom; 120 fathoms = 1 cable's length. 

The United States standard yard is the same as the 
imperial yard of Great Britain. It is determined as fol- 
lows : The rod of a pendulum vibrating seconds of mean 
time in the latitude of London in a vacuum at the level 
of the sea is divided into 391,393 equal parts, and 360,000 
of these parts are 36 inches, or 1 standard yard. 

An inch is one 500,500,000th part of the earth's polar 
axis. 

Artificers sometimes divide the inch into lines or 
twelfths, but more commonly into binary divisions — 
half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth, and thirty-second. 

Mechanical engineers divide the inch decimally — lOths, 
lOOths, lOOOths, etc. 

Civil engineers divide the foot decimally. 

A nautical mile, geographical mile, sea mile, or knot, 
as adopted by United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 
is equal to 6,080.27 feet. 

British Admiralty knot = 6,080' feet. 

A geographical or nautical mile maybe taken =1.15 
statute miles. 

The league = 3 nautical miles. 

The geographical degree = 60 geographical or nautical 
miles. 

The length of a degree of latitude varies, being 68.72 
miles at the equator, 69.05 miles in middle latitudes, and 
69.34 miles in the polar regions. A degree of longitude 
is greatest at the equator, where it is 69. 16 miles, and it 
gradually decreases toward the poles, where it is 0. 

1 hand = 4 inches. 

1 pace = 3 feet. 

The hand is used for heights of horses and girths of 
spars. 

CIRCULAR AND ANGULAR MEASURE. 

60 seconds ('^) = 1 minute ('), 
60 minutes = 1 degree (°). 
360 degrees = 1 circumference (C). 

SQUARE OR LAND MEASURE. 

144 square inches = 1 square foot. 

9 square feet = 1 square yard = 1,296 sq. inches. 
30J square yards = 1 square rod = 272i square feet. 
40 square rods = 1 rood =1,210 square yards 

= 10,890 square feet. 
4 roods = 1 acre =160 rods = 4,840 

square yards = 43,560 square feet. 
A section of land = 640 acres = 1 square mile. 



GENERAL TABLES. 



208.71 feet square = 43,560 square feet = 10 square Gun- 
ter's chains = 1 acre, or 220x198 feet = 1 acre. 

A square ^acre is 147.58 feet at each side; or 110x198 
feet. 

A square i acre is 104.355 feet at each side; or 55X198 
feet. 

A circular acre is 235.504 feet in diameter. 

A circular ^ acre is 166.527 feet in diameter. 

A circular i acre is 117.752 feet in diameter. 

A circular inch is a circle of 1 inch diameter; a square 
foot = 183.346 circular inches. 

1 square inch = 1.27324 circular inches; and one circu- 
lar inch = .7854 of a square inch. 

CUBIC MEASURE. 

1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic, or solid foot. 
27 cubic feet = 1 cubic, or solid yard. 
A pile of wood cut 4 feet long, piled 4 feet high, 8 feet 
long = 128 cubic feet = 1 cord, 

A perch of stone = 16^ feet long, by 1 foot high, by 1^ 

feet thick = 24f cubic feet. 
* ' =22 cubic feet in Philadelphia. 
" = 16i cubic feet in some IS'ew England 
States. 
The perch is so variable in different localities that it 
should never be used in making a contract unless the 
contents in cubic feet be specified. 

A ton (2,240 i^ounds) of Pennsylvania anthracite, when 
broken for domestic use, occupies from 41 to 43 cubic 
feet of space; the mean of which is equal to 1.556 cubic 
yards, or a cube of 3.476 feet on each edge. 

A ton (2,240 pounds) of bituminous coal, equals 44 to 48 
cubic feet, mean equal to 1.704 cubic yards; or a cube of 
3.583 feet on each edge. 

A ton (2,240 lbs.) coke = 80 cubic feet. 
A cubic foot is equal to 



(( 



1728 cubic inches. 
.037037 cubic yard. 
.803564 U. S. struck bush- 
el of 2150.42 cub. in. 
3.21426 U. S. pecks. 
7.48052 U. S. liquid gallons 

of 231 cub. in. 
6.42851 U. S. dry gallons of 
268.8025 cubic in. 



29.92208 U. S. liquid qts. 
25.71405 U. S. dry qts. 
59.84416 U. S. liquid pints. 
51.42809 U. S. dry pints. 
239.37662 U. S. gills. 

.26667 flour barrel of 3 

struck bushels. 
.23748 U. S. liquid barrel 
of 31i gallons. 



A cubic yard is equal to 7.2 flour barrels of 3 struck 
bushels each. 

A ton in computing the tonnage of a sliiiD or other 
vessel is 100 cubic feet of their internal space. 



6 



GENERAL TABLES. 



MEASURES OF VOLUME. 

Liquid Measure. 

4 gills = 1 pint. 

2 pints = 1 quart = 8 gills. 

4 quarts = 1 gallon = 32 gills = 8 pints. 

1 gallon liquid = 231 cubic inches and contains 8.339 
avoirdupois pounds of distilled water at 39.8*^ F. (equal 
old British wine gallon). 

63 gallons = 1 hogshead. 
2 hogsheads = 1 pipe or butt. 
2 pipes = 1 tun. 

In the United States and Great Britain, 1 barrel of 
wine or brandy = 31^ gallons = 4.211 cubic feet. 

A hogshead is 63 gallons, but this term is often applied 
to casks of various capacities. 

Butt of Sherry = 108 gallons. 

Pipe of Port 

Butt of Malaga . 

Puncheon of Brandy 

Puncheon of Kum 

Hogshead of Brandy 

Hogshead of Claret 

Puncheon of Scotch Whiskey 

The following cylinders give measures of liquid volumes 
in common use : 

Dia. Height. Dia. Height. 



. • -L\JKJ 

= 115 


= 105 


110 to 120 


100 to 110 


55 to 60 


46 


110 to 130 



u 



1 gill (7.2 cu. in.) 
^ pint . . . 
1 " ... 
1 quart . . . 



If 

3i 

H 



in. 



3 

3f 

3 

6 



1 gallon 

2 " 
8 " 

10 '' 



7 
7 

14 
14 



6 
12 
12 
15 



Dry Measure. 



Edge of a cube of 
equal capacity. 

4.066 inches. 
6.4.54 '' 



(( 



2 pints = 1 quart. . . . 

4 quarts = 1 gallon = 8 pints 

2 gallons = 1 peck = 16 pints = 8 gallons 8.131 

4 pecks = 1 bushel (struck) = 64 pints = 

32 quarts = 8 gallons . . . 12.908 

A gallon dry measure = 268.8 cubic inches. 

A bushel dry measure (same as British Winchester 
struck bushel) = 2150.42 cubic inches, or 77.63 pounds 
avoirdupois of pure water at its maximum density. 

The dimensions of a bushel by law are 18i inches inner 
diameter, 19^ inches outer diameter, and 8 inches deep ; 
and when heaped, the cone is not to be less than 6 inches 
high, which makes a heaped bushel equal to IJ struck 
bushels, or to 1.56 cubic feet. 

A struck bushel = 1.24 cubic feet. 

The dry^oitr barrel = 3.75 cubic feet = 3 struck bushels. 
The dry barrel is not, however, a legalized measure, 

36 heaped bushels = 1 chaldron. 



GENERAL TABLES. 7 

MENSURATION. 

Properties of the Circle. 

Diameter X 3.14159 = circumference. 
Diameter X .8862 = side of an equal square. 
Diameter X .7071 = side of an inscribed square. 
Diameter 2 X .7854 = area of a circle. 
Kadius X 6.28318 = circumference. 
Circumference -^ 3. 14159 = diameter. 

1st. The circle contains a greater area than any plane 
figure, bounded by an equal perimeter or outline. 

2d. The areas of circles are to each other as the 
squares of their diameters. 

3d. Any circle whose diameter is double that of 
another contains four times the area of the other. 

4th. Area of a circle is equal to the area of a triangle 
whose base equals the circumference, and perpendicular 
equals the radius. 

Area of Circles and their Circumference. 






Area. 



0.0123 

0.0491 

0.1104 

0.1963 

0.3067 

0.4417 

0.6013 

0.7854 

0.9940 

1.227 

1.484 

1.767 

2.073 

2.405 

2.761 

3.141 

3.976 

4.908 

5.939 

7.068 

8.295 

9.621 

11.044 

12.566 

15.904 

19.635 

23.758 

28.274 

33.183 

38.484 

44.178 

50.265 

56.745 

63.617 

70.882 



Cm. 



.3926 
.7854 
1.178 
1.570 
1.963 
2.356 
2.748 
3.141 
3.534 
3.927 
4.319 
4.712 
5.105 
5.497 
5.890 
6.283 
7.068 
7.854 
8.639 
9.424 
10.21 
10.99 
11.78 
12.56 
14.13 
15.70 
17.27 
18.84 
20.42 
21.99 
23.56 
25.13 
26.70 
28.27 
29.84 



10 

J 

ll' 
12^ 

13^ 

J 

14^ 

J 

15' 

J 

16' 

J 

17' 

18' 

] 

19' 

J 

20^ 

21' 

22' 

23 

24 

25 
26 

27 
28 
29 



Area. 



78. 

86. 

95. 
103. 
113. 
122. 
132. 
143. 
153. 
165. 
176. 
188. 
201. 
213. 
226. 
240. 
254. 
268. 
283. 
298. 
314. 
330. 
346. 
363. 
380, 
397, 
415, 
433, 
452, 
471, 
490, 
530, 
572, 
615, 
660, 



54 
59 
03 
86 
09 
71 
73 
13 
93 
13 
71 
69 
06 
82 
98 
52 
46 
80 
52 
64 
16 
06 
36 
05 
13 
60 
47 
,73 
,39 
,43 
,87 
,93 
,55 
,75 
,52 



CiR. 



31.41 
32.98 
34.55 
36.12 
37.69 
39.27 
40.84 
42.41 
43.98 
45.55 
47.12 
48.69 
50.26 
51.83 
53.40 
54.97 
56.54 
58.11 
59.69 
61.26 
62.83 
64.40 
65.97 
67.54 
69.11 
70.68 
72.25 
73.82 
75.39 
76.96 
78.54 
81.68 
84.82 
87.96 
91.10 



ft 



30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 



Area. 



706.86 
754.76 
804.24 
855.30 
907.92 
962.11 
1017.8 
1075.2 
1134.1 
1194.5 
1256.6 
1320.2 
1385.4 
1452.2 
1520.5 
1590.4 
1661.9 
1734.9 
1809.5 
1885.7 
1963.5 
2042.8 
2123.7 
2206.1 
2290.2 
2375.8 
2463.0 
2551.7 
2642.0 
2733.9 
2827.4 
2922.4 
3019.0 
3117.2 
3216.9 



CiR. 



94.24 
97.38 
100.5 
103.6 
106.8 
109.9 
113.0 
116.2 
119.3 
122.5 
125.6 
128.8 
131.9 
135.0 
138.2 
141.3 
144.5 
147.6 
150.7 
153.9 
157.0 
160.2 
163.3 
166.5 
169.6 
172.7 
175.9 
179.0 
182.2 
185.3 
188.4 
191.6 
194.7 
197.9 
201.0 






65 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
92 
93 
94 
95 
96 
97 
98 
99 



Area. 



3318 
3421 
3525 
3631 
3739 
3848, 
3959 
4071 
4185 
4300, 
4417 
4536, 
4656 
4778, 
4901, 
5026, 
5153, 
5281, 
5410, 
5541 
5674 
5808 
5944 
6082 
6221 
6361 
6503 
6647 
6792 
6939 
7088 
7238 
7389 
7542 
7697 



CiR. 



204.2 
207.3 
210.4 
213.6 
216.7 
219.9 
223.0 
226.1 
229.3 
232.4 
235.6 
238.7 
241.9 
245.0 
248.1 
251.3 
254.4 
257.6 
260.7 
263.8 
267.0 
270.1 
273.3 
276.4 
279.6 
282.7 
285.8 
289.0 
292.1 
295.3 
298.4 
301.5 
304.7 
307.8 
311.0 



8 



GENERAL TABLES. 



Contents of Round Tanks in United States Gal- 
lons, FOR Each Foot in Depth. 



Diameter. 


Gallons, 
1 Foot in 


Diameter. 


Gallons, 
1 Foot in 


Diameter. 


Gallons, 
1 Foot in 


Ft. 


In. 


Depth. 

5.8735 


Ft. 


In. 


Depth. 


Ft. 


In. 


Depth. 


1 





11 





710.6977 


21 





2590.2290 


1 


3 


9.1766 


11 


3 


743.3686 


21 


3 


2652.2532 


1 


6 


13.2150 


11 


6 


776i7746 


21 


6 


2715.0413 


1 


9 


17.9870 


11 


9 


810.9143 


21 


9 


2778.5486 


2 





23.4940 


12 





848.1890 


22 





2842.7910 


2 


3 


29.7340 


12 


3 


881.3966 


22 


3 


2907.7664 


2 


6 


36.7092 


12 


6 


917.7395 


22 


6 


2973.4889 


2 


9 


44.4179 


12 


9 


954.8159 


22 


9 


3039.9209 


3 





52.8618 


13 





992.6274 


23 





3107.1001 


3 


3 


62.0386 


13 


3 


1031.1719 


23 


3 


3175.0122 


3 


6 


73.1504 


13 


6 


1070.4514 


23 


6 


3243.6595 


3 


9 


82.5959 


13 


9 


1108.0645 


23 


9 


3313.0403 


4 


3 


93.9754 


14 





1151.2129 


24 





3383.1563 


4 


6 


103.0300 


14 


3 


1192.6940 


24 


3 


3454.0051 


4 


9 


118.9386 


14 


6 


1234.9104 


24 


6 


3525.5929 


4 


8 


132.5209 


14 


9 


1277.8615 


24 


9 


3597.9068 


5 





146.8384 


15 





1321.5454 


25 





3670.9596 


5 


3 


161.8886 


15 


3 


1365.9634 


25 


3 


3744.7452 


5 


6 


177.6740 


15 


6 


1407.5165 


25 


6 


3819.2657 


5 


9 


194.1913 


15 


9 


1457.0032 


25 


9 


3894.5203 


6 





211.4472 


16 





1503.6250 


26 





3970.5098 


6 


3 


229.4342 


16 


3 


1550.9797 


26 


3 


4047.2322 


6 


6 


248.1564 


16 


6 


1599.0696 


26 


6 


4124.6898 


6 


9 


267.6122 


16 


9 


1647.8930 


26 


9 


4202.9610 


7 





287.8032 


17 





1697.4516 


27 





4281.8072 


7 


3 


308.7270 


17 


3 


1747.7431 


27 


3 


4361.4664 


7 


6 


330.3859 


17 


6 


1798.7698 


27 


6 


4441.8607 


7 


9 


352.7665 


17 


9 


1850.5301 


27 


9 


4522.9886 


8 





375.9062 


18 





1903.0254 


28 





4604.8517 


8 


3 


399.7666 


18 


3 


1956.2537 


28 


3 


4686.4876 


8 


6 


424.3625 


18 


6 


2010.2171 


28 


6 


4770.7787 


8 


9 


449.2118 


18 


9 


2064.9140 


28 


9 


4854.8434 



The circumference of a circle multiplied by 0.282 equals 
side of a square of same area. Useful in turning round 
tanks into square. 

Mensuration of Surfaces. 
Area of any parallelogram . = base X perpendicular 

Area of any triangle . . 



height. 



Area of any circle . . . 
Area of sector of circle . 
Area of segment of circle 



= base X i perpendicular 
height. 

= diameter squared X .7854. 

= arc X -l radius. 

= area of sector of equal ra- 
dius, less area of triangle. 



GENERAL TABLES. 



9 



Area of parabola .... 
Area of ellipse 

Area of cycloid 

Area of any regular polygon 

Surface of cylinder . . . 
Surface of cone 



Surface of sphere . . . . = 

Surface of frustrum . . . = 

Surface of cylindrical ring . = 

Surface of segment , . . = 



base X f height. 

longest diameter X short- 
est diameter X .7854. 

area of generating circle 
X 3. 

sum of its sides X perpen- 
dicular from its centre to 
one of its sides -^2. 

area of both ends -f length 
X circumference. 

area of base -f circumfer- 
ence of base X i slant 
height. 

diameter^ X 3.1415 = di- 
ameter X circumference. 

sum of girt at both ends 
X i slant height + area 
of both ends. 

thickness of ring added to 
the inner diameter X by 
the thickness X 9.8698. 

height of segment X whole 
circumference of sphere 
of which it is a part. 



Mensueation of Solids. 



Cylinder 

Sphere 

Segment of sphere . . 



Cone or pyramid . . = 
Frustrum of a cone . . == 

Frustrum of a pyramid = 

Solidity of a wedge . . = 
Frustrum of a wedge . = 
Solidity of a ring . . = 



area of one end X length. 

cube of diameter X .5236. 

square root of the height added 
to three times the square of 
radius of base X by height and 
by .5236. 

area of base X i perpendicular 
height. 

product of diameter of both 
ends + sum of their squares X 
perpendicular height X .2618. 

sum of the areas of the two 
ends + square root of their 
product X by i of the perpen- 
dicular height. 

area of base X i perpendicular 
height. 

i perpendicular height X sum 
of the areas of the two ends. 

thickness + inner diameter X 
square of the thickness X 
2.4674. 



10 



GENERAL TABLES. 



Weight and Specific Gravity of Liquids. 



XlQUIDS AT 3 2 "5 F. 



Mercury . 
Bromine . 
Sulphuric acid 
Nitrous acid . 
Chloroform 
Water of the Dead Sea 
Nitric acid 
Acetic acid 
Milk .... 
Sea Water 
Pure water (distilled) at 39° F 
Wine of Bordeaux . 
" " Burgundy . 
Oil, linseed ^ . 
poppy . 
rape seed . 
whale . 
olive . 
turpentine 
potato, 
Petroleum 
Naphtha . 
Ether, nitric . 
" sulphurous . 
" nitrous 
" acetic . 
" hydrochloric 
" sulphuric 
xAlcohol, proof spirit; 

" pure . 
Benzine 
Wood spirit 



Weight of 

one cubit 

foot. 


Weight of 
one gallon. 
(Imperial) 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


848.7 


136. 


185.1 


29.7 


114.9 


18.4 


96.8 


15.5 


95.5 


15.3 


77.4 


12.4 


76.2 


12.2 


67.4 


10.8 


64.3 


10.3 


64.05 


10.3 


62.425 


10. 


62.9 


9.9 


61.9 


9.9 


58.7 


9.4 


58.1 


9.3 


57.4 


9.2 


57.4 


9.2 


57.1 


9.15 


54.3 


8.7 


51.2 


8.2 


54.9 


8.8 


53.1 


8.5 


69.3 


11.1 


67.4 


10.8 


55.6 


8.9 


55.6 


8.9 


54.3 


8.7 


44.9 


7.2 


57.4 


9.2 


49.3 


7.9 


53.1 


8.5 


49.9 


8. 



Specific 
gravity. 

Water =1 

13.596 
2.966 
1.84 
1.55 
1.53 
1.24 
1.22 
1.08 
1.03 
1.026 
1. 

0.694 
0.991 
0.94 
0.93 
0.92 
0.92 
0.915 
0.87 
0.82 
0.88 
0.85 
1.11 
1.08 
0.89 
0.89 
0.87 
0.72 
0.92 
0.79 
0.85 
0.8 



The specific gravity, or specific weight, of a body is 
the ratio which the weight of the body bears to the 
weight of another body of equal volume. 

Table of Polehedrons. 



Name. 



Texaliedron . 
Hexahedron . 
Octahedron . 
Dodecahedron 
Icosahedron . 



No. of 

Sides. 


R-SX 


4 


0.6123 


6 


.8660 


8 


.7071 


12 


1.4012 


20 


.9510 



r^SX 



.2041 

.5000 

.4082 

1.1135 

.7558 



A-S2X 



1.7320 

6.0000 

3.4641 

20.6457 

8.6602 



C- S^x 



0.1178 
1.0000 
.4714 
7.6631 
2.1817 



S = Length of linear edge of a side. 
K — Radius of circumscribed circle. 
J lad ins of inscribed circle. 



7' 

A 
C 



- Area of polyhedron. 

= Cube contents of polyliedron. 



GENERAL TABLES. 



11 



Table of Polygons. 

S = Side of polygon. 
R = Radius of circumscribed circle. 
r = Radius of inscribed circle. 
A= Angle formed by the intersection of the sides. 



Name. 


No. of 

Sides. 


A 


Area=S2 x 


S = RX 


S = r X 


Trigon . . . . 
Pentagon . . . 
Hexagon . . . 
Octagon . . . 
Decagon . . . 


3 
5 
6 
8 
10 


60° 
108° 
120° 
135° 
144° 


.4330 
1.7205 
2.5980 
4.8284 
7.6942 


1.732 
1.1755 

1.0000 
.7653 
.6180 


3.4641 
1.4536 
1.1547 

0.8284 
.6498 



Area of polygon = radius of inscribed circle X i num- 
ber of sides X length of one side. 

THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON VARIOUS SUB- 
STANCES. 

deg. 



Antimony 


melts at 951. 


deg. 


Tin melts at . . 


421. 


Bismuth 


u 


476. 




Zinc " 


740. 


Brass 


(( 


1900. 




Ice '' . . 


32. 


Copper 


(( 


2548. 




Mercury boils at 


662. 


Glass 


(( 


2377. 




Naphtha " . 


186. 


Gold 


(( 


2590. 




Fresh water boils at 212. 


Cast iron 


(( 


3479. 




Sea water '' 


213.2 


Lead 


(( 


594. 




Ether " 


100. 


Platinum 


( ( 


3080. 




Oil turpentine " 


304. 


Silver 


u 


1250. 




Linseed oil '' 


640. 


Steel 


u 


2500. 




Sweet ** 


412. 



MELTING TEMPERATURE OF ALLOYS. 

Lead, 1, Tin , Bismuth 4, Cadmium 1, melts at 155 degs. 

Lead 3, Tin 5, Bismuth 8, 

Lead 1, Tin 3, Bismuth 5, 

Lead 1, Tin 4, Bismuth 5, 

Tin 1, Bismuth 1, 

Lead 2, Tin 3, 



Tin 2, Bismuth 1, 
Lead 1, Tin 2, 
Tin 8, Bismuth 1, 
Lead 2, Tin 1, 



a 



I i 



(( 



208 
212 
240 
286 
334 
336 
360 
392 
475 



PROPORTIONS OF VARIOUS COMPOSI- 
TIONS IN COMMON USE. 

(In One Hundred Parts.) 

Babbit's Metal . . Tin 89, Copper 3.7, Antimony 7.3. 

Fine Yellow Brass . Copper 66, Zinc 34. 

Gun Metal, Yalves, etc. Copper 90, Tin 10. 

White Brass . . . Copper 10, Zinc 80, Tin 10. 

German Silver . . Copper 33.3, Zinc 33.4, Mckel 33.3. 



12 



GENERAL TABLES, 



Church Bells . . Copper 80,Zinc5.6,Tiii 10.1, Lead 4.3 

Gongs ..... Copper 81.6, Tin 18.4. 

Lathe Bvishes . . Copper 80, Tin 20. 

Machinery Bearings, Copper 87.5, Tin 12.5. 

Muntz Metal . . Copper 60, Zinc 40. 

Sheathing Metal . Copper 56, Zinc 44. 

SHORT METHOD FOR CALCULATING 

INTEREST. 

Multiply the principal by as many hundredths as there 

are days, and 



For 4 per cent. 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
12 



Divide by 90 
72 
60 
52 
45 
40 
36 
30 



EXAMPLE— Interest on $50 for 30 days at 4 per 
cent. 50 X .30 = 15.00, which divided by 90 == 16|- cents— 
the required result. 

INTEREST TABLE. 

FOUR PER CENT. 



Time. 


$1 



$2 



$3 



$4 



$5 


$Q 


$7 


$8 


$9 



$10 



$100 

1 


$1000 


IDy. 














11 


3 " 





























1 


34 


33 


5 " 























1 

2 


1 

2 


54 


56 


10 " 











1 

2 


h, 


1 

2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


11 


1 11 


1 Mo. 





* 


1 


1* 


H 

4 


2 


24 

4 


24 


3 


s 


33 


3 33 


2 " 


* 


1* 


2 


2? 


4 


^2^ 


6 


67 


6 67 


3 " 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1 00 


10 00 


4 '' 


^ 


2* 


4 


5* 


6* 


8 


94 


104 


12 


134 


1 33 


13 33 


6 '' 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


2 00 


20 00 


9 " 


3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


3 00 


30 00 


1 Yk. 


4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


4 00 


40 00 











FIVE 


PER CENT. 










Time. 


$1 


$2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


IDy. 
































1 


14 


3 " 
































4 


42 


5 •" 























1 


1 


1 


7 


69 


10 " 














1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


14 


14 


1 39 


1 Mo. 


4 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


42 


4 17 


2 " 


1 


14 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


83 


8 33 


3 " 


1 


24 


4 


5 


6 


8 


9 


10 


11 


13 


1 25 


12 50 


4 " 


^ 


3 


5 


7 


8 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 


1 67 


16 67 


6 " 


24 


5 


8 


10 


13 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


2 50 


25 00 


9 " 


3S 


74 


11 


15 


19 


23 


26 


30 


34 


38 


3 75 


37 50 


1 Yr. 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


36 


40 


45 


50 


5 00 


50 00 



GENERAL TABLES. 



13 



SIX PER CENT. 



Time. 


$1 



$2 



$3 



$4 



$5 



S6 



$1 



$8 



$9 



$10 



Sioo 

2 


$1000 


IDy. 


17 


3 " 





























1 


5 


50 


5 " 

















1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


8 


83 


10 " 








1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


17 


1 67 


1 Mo. 


* 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


50 


5 00 


2 " 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1 00 


10 00 


3 " 


1* 


3 


5 


6 


8 


9 


11 


12 


14 


15 


1 50 


15 00 


4 " 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


2 00 


20 00 


6 " 


3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


3 00 


30 00 


9 " 


4* 


9 


14 


18 


23 


27 


32 


36 


41 


45 


4 50 


45 00 


1 Yr. 


6 


12 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


6 00 


60 00 



ALGEBRAIC SIGNS. 

= The sign of equal. 

-f- Addition, as 4 + 8 = 12. 

X Multiplication, as 4 X 8 = 32. 

— Subtraction, as 8 — 4 = 4. 

-^ Division, as 8-^4 = 2. 

.'. Therefore. 

( ) Parenthesis, (8 X 4 X 3) -H- 6 = 16. 

j/ Square Root, |/9 = 3. 

f Cube Root, ^27 = 3. 

92 Square of, as 92 = 81. 

93 Cube of, as 93 = 727. 

7.5 Decimal Point, 7.5 = 7i, .75 = -^^ = f. 

When letters are used they represent the initials of the 
word, as T for time, Y for velocity. 



SOUND. 



Velocity in Ft. per second. 

Air 1,142 

Water 4,900 

Iron 17,500 



Velocity in Ft. per second 

Copper 10,378 

Wood \ 12,000 



Distant sounds may be heard on a still day- 



Human voice . . 150 yds. 
Rifle 5,300 " 



Military Band . 5,200 yds. 
Cannon . . . 35,000 '' 



To Measure Distances by Sound. 

Rule : Multiply the time the sound takes in seconds by 
1142; the product will be the distance in feet. 

N'OTE. — Sound in common air moves uniformly at the 
rate of about 1,142 feet in a second. Cold and uneven 
surfaces retard its motion a little, and heat accelerates it 
in a small degree. 



14 



GENERAL TABLES. 



EXPLOSIVE FORCE OP VARIOUS SUB- 
STANCES USED FOR BLASTING. 

(m. berthelot.) 



Substance. 



Blasting powder . 

Artillery powder . 

Sporting powder . 

Powder, nitrate of soda for its 
base 

Powder, chlorate of potash for 
its base 

Gun-cotton .... 

Picric acid .... 

Picrate potash 

Gun-cotton mixed with chlo- 
rate of potash 

Picric acid, mixed with chlorate 
of potash .... 

Picrate, mixed with chlorate of 
potash 

Nitro-glycerine 



Heat. 


Volume of Gas. 


Estimated 

explosive 

force. 


509 


0.173 litre. 


88 


608 


0.225 " 


137 


641 


0.216 " 


139 


764 


0.248 '' 


190 


972 


0.318 '* 


309 


590 


0.801 " 


472 


687 


0.780 " 


536 


578 


0.585 " 


680 


1420 


0.484 '' 


680 


1424 


0.408 " 


582 


1422 


0.337 " 


478 


1320 


0.710 " 


939 



The celebrated chemist, M. Berthelot, further de- 
scribes nitro- glycerine "as really the ideal of portable 
force. It burns completely without residue; in fact, 
gives an excess of oxygen; it developes twice as much 
heat as powder, three and a half times more gas, and has 
seven times the explosive force, weight for weight, and 
taken volume for volume it possesses twelve times more 
energy." 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 



ATLAS POWDER. 

The name "High Explosives'' is now generally ap- 
plied to that class of explosives of which nitro- glycerine 
is the active principle. And they are commonly known 
by the general name Dynamite. 

We give below some few of the properties, uses and 
advantages of "ATLAS POWDER" (dynamite) manu- 
factured by the REPAU:N^0 CHEMICAL CO., OF WIL- 
MIXCTOIS', DELAWARE, one of the oldest, most reliable 
and largest manufacturers in the business. 

"Atlas Poavder" is a carefully prepared nitro-gly- 
cerine compound of great explosive power, uniting that 
element with one equally as valuable, viz. : Safety. 

ITS PROPERTIES. 

"Atlas Powder" is a mixture of nitro-glycerine with 
an absorbing cZope, the latter so arranged as to its chemi- 
cal formula that in addition to thoroughly and perma- 
nently absorbing the nitro-glycerine, it is itself a gas 
producing compound, thus materially assisting the. effect 
of the explosion. 

" Atlas Powder " bu^ns freely without explosion 
when unconfined in the open air. 

When fired by a blasting cap it explodes with enormous 
force. 

All nitro-glycerine compounds freeze at 42° Fahrenheit, 
and resume their soft, pasty condition when warmed. To 
secure its full explosive power "Atlas Powder" must 
never be used even in a semi-frozen state. (See " Thaw- 
ing.") All nitro-glycerine compounds decompose when 
exposed to the direct rays of the sun for any length of 
time whatever the temperature of the air may be, and 
hence lose their efficiency. Therefore do not leave 
cartridges laying around when they are not to be used at 
once. 

It will not explode by rough handling, overturning of 
wagons, collisions of cars, or by any ordinary fire. 

ADVANTAGES GAINED BY ITS USE. 

Economy in Labor. — Fewer and smaller drill holes 
are required, and as labor, not powder, is the great ex- 
pense in blasting operations, the saving in this direction 
alone is not inconsiderable. 

Economy in Material. — A decided saving in steel, 

(15) 



16 HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 

iron and fuse, and a consequent checking of the waste at- 
tendant upon the process of blasting with ordinary black 
powder. 

Economy in Time. — Absence of smoke, permitting 
the miner or blaster to resume work more quickly after 
an explosion; rapidity with which blasting can be done, 
an important factor at all times, and doubly so in sink- 
ing a shaft or driving a tunnel. 

Absence of Danger. — Providing the miner or other 
blaster at all times, with a compound so thoroughly 
safe and reliable in its working as to allow him to de- 
vote his whole attention to its application, and not to 
the question of its possible explosion when least ex- 
pected. 

Its ability to withstand comparatively heavy shocks 
and rough handling, and exposure to comparatively high 
temperature, preserving its good and powerful qualities 
for many years, and not developing, as do many others 
of a like nature, the often fatal results due to haste and 
carelessness, or perhaps both, in manufacture. 

DAILY USES. 

*' Atlas Powder" is now largely used wherever 
work of any kind needing explosives is in progress ; some 
of the more important applications are given below. 

For driving tunnels, railroad and other grading, quar- 
rying, sinking shafts, mining silver, gold, lead, copper 
and iron ores, moving piles of frozen ore in winter, sub- 
marine blasting, removing wrecks, clearing ice gorges, 
starting log- jams, blasting clay for brick making, break- 
ing boulders, clearing land of stumps and trees, blowing 
holes for transplanting trees, etc. 

TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE. 

With regard to transportation The Kepauno Chemi- 
cal Co. can make the following statement: That up to 
the present writing they have never lost a pound of 
*' Atlas Powder" from explosion while in transit, 
although inillions of pounds have been shipped annually, 
and a number of instances have occurred where ship- 
ments have been in railroad collisions so severe that not 
only were the cars wrecked, but the boxes were broken 
open and the cartridges scattered. 

"Atlas Powder" can be transported by rail, boat, 
or wagon, with perfect safety. 

Storage. — "Atlas Powder" can be stored in any 
warehouse. It is best on public works, and at mines, 
quarries and other important works to store it in a dry, 
well ventilated magazine. 

Let only one man handle the keys of the magazine and 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 17 

hold him responsible for the use of the powder. '* Atlas 
Powder" when thus stored will preserve its good and 
powerful properties for many years. Do not store ex- 
ploders, caps, etc., in the same magazine with the 
powder. 

THAWING. 

All nitro-glycerine compounds freeze about 42° Fahren- 
heit and explode when confined at 360° Fahrenheit. 

When unconfined in the open air, "Atlas Powder" 
when ignited, burns slowly away without explosion. All 
frozen cartridges should be thawed, as when frozen the 
powder loses much of its efficiency, its properties change, 
and it is difficult to explode with a cap. 

When the cartridges are frozen do not expose to a 
direct heat, but thaw by one of the following methods : — 

First. — Place the number of cartridges needed for day's 
work on shelves in a room heated by steam pipes (not 
live steam) or a stove. 

Taking cartridges out as holes are ready for loading. 
If a small house is built for this purpose, bank it around 
with earth, or preferably fresh manure. 

Second. — Use two water tight kettles, one smaller than 
the other, put the cartridges in the smaller kettle, and 
place the same in the large kettle, filling space between 
kettles with hot water at 130° to 140° Fahrenheit, or so 
that it can be borne by the hand. To keep water warm 
do not try to heat it in the kettle, but add fresh warm 
water. Cover kettles to retain the heat. Do not in 
thawing allow the temperature to get above 212° Fahren- 
heit. 

The REPAr:N^o Chemical Co. furnish a regular kettle 
of this type for thawing cartridges. 

Third. — Where the number of cartridges to be thawed 
is small they may be placed about the person of the 
blaster until ready for use. 

Do not thaw cartridges by putting them in hot water or 
by exposing them to live steam as this (unfortunately very 
common) method has an injurious effect on the powder. 
Do not thaw cartridges by holding them in the hand be- 
fore a fire. Keep cartridges away from all fires as much 
as possible, — this is true of all explosives. Do not leave 
cartridges exposed after thawing, as they freeze again 
rapidly. They may be carried to where they are to be 
used in a box. Cover cartridges with sawdust to retain 
heat. 

GRADES OF POWDER. 

The Rep AUNG Chemical Co., manufacture a large 
number of grades of "Atlas Powder." 

They are suited for all kinds of work, and all classes of 
rock cement, ore and other blasting. 



18 HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 

Atlas A and B+. — For submarine blasting, very hard 
rock, boulders, iron, etc., equal to liquid nitro-glycerine. 

Atlas B and C. — For tunnelling in hard rock, mining 
copper and magnetic iron ore, lead ore, gold and silver 
quartz, limestone, etc. 

Atlas D+, F-)-, and E. — For general quarrying, coal, 
cement, slate, sand or earth blasting, removing growing 
trees, stumps, etc. 

These remarks apply in a general way to all classes of 
work, but where powder is to be used we would advise cus- 
tomers to apply to our nearest office to have a man sent 
to examine the work, and advise what grade of powder 
should be used, and how applied, as we manufacture a 
large number of grades especially adapted for different 
classes of work. 

By this means we can give our customer a grade 
especially adapted to his work, and we are enabled to do 
ourselves justice. 

In ' 'Atlas Powder ' ' you have the strongest and safest, 
the most handy and the most useful explosive for mining 
and quarrying purposes that has ever been discovered. 
AVhether for sinking pits through the hardest, wettest, or 
dryest ground, or working mines in the wettest and most 
difficult places, "Atlas Powder" will show itself to be 
equal to your requirements, and do for you what no other 
explosive can. 

As an industrial agent, it is stronger, cheaper and 
safer than any other blasting compound yet discovered. 

No invariable rule can be laid down as to the diameter 
and length of the cartridges to be used under any and all 
circumstances, nor the amount nor grade of powder re- 
quired for all kinds of work. Much will have to depend 
upon the good sense and judgment of the persons using 
the powder. 

The following, however, may afford the inquirer some 
information which may be of value to him : 

ROCK WORK. 

Drilling. — Adapt the size and depth of your hole to 
the work you wish to accomplish. 

As a general thing for ordinary rock blasting, the dis- 
tance between the holes should be about the same as the 
depth of the holes ; set the holes back from the face twice 
as far as for common blasting powder, say a distance 
back from the face equal to the depth of the liole, and 
load one-third the length of the hole. These directions 
are only general and do not apply to very deep holes. In 
all cases the experience and judgment of the blaster 
must be his guide. 

One or two blasts will demonstrate if any change is 
needed. 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 19 

In many cases, two men can be drilling two small holes 
single hand, instead of both working on one large one. 

Where deep submarine blasting is done, the drill hole 
should first be carefully cleared of borings, and a metal 
tubing inserted to near the bottom, and the cartridges 
carefully passed down through it. 

Charging. — The charge must fit and fill the bottom of 
bore and be packed solid. If holes are in dark rock or on 
wet work, and swabbed comparatively dry, slit the paper 
of the cartridge lengthwise with a knife, and as each is 
dropped into the hole, strike a loooden rammer on it with 
sufficient force to make the powder completely fill the 
bottom and diameter of the bore. A more perfect load 
is made by taking off the paper, dropping the powder in 
loosely, and ramming each six or eight inches of the 
charge, using the paper of each cartridge as a wad, to 
take down any powder which may have stuck to the 
sides of the hole. 

If water is standing in the hole, preserve the paper of 
the cartridge and avoid ramming more than enough to 
settle the charge on the bottom, using cartridges of as 
large a diameter as will readily run into the bore. 

Do not waste j'Our powder by putting a small quantity 
in a deep hole; a large quantity in a very deep but very 
small hole; or a large quantity in large but shallow hole. 
Use good sense and judgment. 

When cartridges are rused, the last cartridge placed in 
the hole should contain an exploder or cap, with fuse 
attached. When loose powder is used, a piece of car- 
tridge two or three inches in length, with exploder or 
cap attached, should be pressed firmly on top of the 
charge; these pieces of cartridges with cap in same are 
called primers and may be prepared before loading. 

Tamping. — In deep, vertical holes, water makes a 
good tamping, but generally fine dry sand, clay, etc., are 
used. 

Fill in, for an inch or two carefully, so as not to dis- 
place the cap and primer; then with your hardwood ram- 
mer, pack as solid as you please, ramming with your 
hand alone, and not using any form of hammer. 

Firing. — If the work is wet, or the charge used under 
water, use water-proof fuse, and protect the end of the 
fuse by applying yellow bar soap, pitch or tallow, around 
the edge of the cap. Water must not be allowed to 
reach the powder in the fuse or the fulminate in the cap. 
Exploding by electricity is best under water at great 
depth, as the pressure of water is so great on the fuse 
that it forces through and dampens it so as to prevent 
firing. 

It is difficult to make fuse that will withstand the 
pressure of more than twenty feet of water. 



20 HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 

Kesults. — You will find, notwitlistanding the use of a 
smaller drill and that the hole was not drilled as deep — 
taking but half the time in putting down your hole — 
that the rock is broken, not only to the bottom, but be- 
low the bottom of the hole, and you have done so much 
more work with it that the cost of your "Atlas Pow- 
der" is of no consideration. 

The reduction in cost of work is fully thirty or forty 
per cent. 

If your shot was in very hard rock, you have broken it 
when nothing else would. 

If in wet ground, you have saved the time of drying 
the hole. 

If in submarine blasting, that water makes a good 
tamping. 

If in hard iron ore, it is rendered asunder; or in 
boulders or block-holes, they are torn to fragments. 

Seam Blasting. — If the seam is to be found in the 
rock, remove the powder from the cartridge, and push it 
into the seam and fire a cap beside it. This will open 
the seam so that a larger quantity of powder can be 
used, and the rock broken without drilling. 

In blasting coal, slate, marble, granite, freestone, or 
any other material which it is desirable to obtain in 
large blocks, cartridges of small diameter should be used 
in Avide boreholes, the charge being rolled in several folds 
of paper to prevent its touching the sides of the bore- 
hole. The intensity of action and crushing effect of 
"Atlas Poavder" are thus lessened. 

" Atlas Powder," as a general rule, throws rock less 
and breaks it more, and extends its effects much deeper 
than ordinary blasting powder; and those who use it 
soon learn not to judge of a blast by first appearances. 
It frequently happens that a blast which seems to have 
had no effect proves to have done remarkable execution 
in cracking and loosening the rock, and preparing the 
way for subsequent blasts. This is especially the case in 
tunnels and shafts. 

ICE WORK. 

Charges. — Tie together as many cartridges as are 
wanted for the charge. One cartridge only need be 
loaded with cap and fuse. Use waterproof fuse and pro- 
tect the cap as directed under "Firing," in article on 
rock work. 

To Open a Channel Through Solid Ice. — Cut holes 
and hang charges, of from half a pound to five pounds 
each, in the water, from six inches to five feet under the 
ice. Recent experience on solid fresh water ice, of three 
feet in thickness, has shown that a charge of four 
pounds, exploded five feet under the ice, will break a 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 21 

circle of sixty to seventy feet in diameter, and that a 
charge of one-half a pound, exploded eighteen inches 
under ten inches of rotten salt water ice, will break a 
circle of twenty feet in diameter. 

If the charge is placed too near the ice, the force of 
the explosion is spent in throwing the ice and water of a 
small circle high in the air. The same charge, fired at a 
greater depth, makes a more extended blast, with less 
display. 

The rule adopted for loading is : Increase the size of 
the charge and depth of firing point until the result is 
the greatest circumference of breakage. 

The charges are loaded and fired very rapidly, and the 
amount of work accomplished in one day is something 
wonderful. 

To Break Floating Ice. — Fasten the charge to a 
stone, block of wood, or other object, to prevent its 
rolling. Use fuse of sufficient length to give time to 
place the charge in position, and retreat in safety. After 
lighting the fuse, throw the charge as nearly on to the 
centre of the ice-cake as possible. Begin with from one 
to three cartridges, and be guided by their effect in fu- 
ture operations. 

To Break Out Ice when it is Piled from Ten 
TO Forty Feet High. — Find the weakest point and 
place the charge where it will get, as nearly as possible, 
a bearing on all its sides. Charge required from five to 
twenty-five pounds, according to work to be performed. 
If passage from place of firing is too difficult to admit 
of using fuse, perfect safety can be gained by using a 
battery. 

About Wharves and Piling. — Decrease size of 
charge as you approach wharves and piling. Charges of 
one-third of a pound have been fired within two feet of 
piling, clearing the ice from it, and doing no damage. 
Where there are crevices in the ice, lay the charge in 
them. If there are none, it is well to cut a shallow hole 
in which to lay the charge, giving it all the bearing pos- 
sible. 

To Obtain the Greatest Kesults. — In operations 
on ice, it should be remembered that the charge, to be 
most effective, must be warm, and should be fired as 
soon as possible after being thawed. See articles on 
*' Precaution" and "Thawing." 

LOG JAMS. 

' * Atlas Powder " is invaluable in breaking Log Jams. 
A charge exploded on a log, above or below water ^ will 
cut it in two as readily as can be done with an axe, with 
the advantage of the operator being at a safe distance 



22 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 



from the starting of the jam when the cutting takes 
place. 

Breaking up "Roll ways." — "Atlas Powder" is 
now used to great advantage in breaking up " Rollways " 
of logs. Large quantities of this powerful explosive are 
each season used for this purpose by the lumbermen. 

Its use has entirely superseded the old way of slowly 
and laboriously prying apart the huge piles, frozen and 
matted together by snow and sleet with cant hooks and 
levers. At a season when time is truly money the use of 
a little "Atlas" will save many times its cost in labor 
alone, beside avoiding delay and loss of valuable time. 
It is safely and easily transported in fifty pound cases, 
and no logging camp can afford to be without it a single 
day when engaged in this work. 

BLASTING BOULDERS AND MASSES OP 

IRON. 

For large boulders the best method is to use inch drill 
holes. A boulder of ten tons should have an inch drill 
hole from ten to twenty inches deep, as the shape and 
grain of the rock may demand; about a pound or two of 
*' Atlas Powder" will break it in pieces. Smaller 
boulders or block-hole in a quarry would require holes of 
from four to six inches in depth, and if necessary can 
be filled full of powder, the cap pushed into the charge 
and no tamping used. 

Surface Blasting. — Boulders may frequently be 
broken by placing a cartridge of "Atlas Powdp:r" on 
their surface, and exploding it while in that position. 
For this kind of blasting, select the spot which you 




Before Blasting, 

would naturally pick out to strike with a sledge hammer 
(if you were going to break it in that way, first loosening 
the dirt around tlic base of the boulder), jilace the car- 
tridge in position and cover it with sand or dirt, and 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 23 

upon that lay a heavy rock. Then light the fuse and 
move to a place of safety. To blast a boulder from be- 




After Blasting. 

low, proceed as in stump blasting, taking care that the 
hole be made on a flat or hollow side of the rock and not 
on a bulging side of it. 

For Breaking Hard Head Boulders^ the strongest grade 
of " Atlas Powdek ' ' is the best and cheapest. As a gen- 
eral rule it is best to put the powder under the boulder 
and close up to the rock, tamping the ground well under 
and around the charge, but if the boulder is flat or 
slightly concave on top and is not imbedded in the 
ground, it can be broken by placing the powder on top 
and covering it as given above, but if much imbedded 
the earth should be loosened around and under it. 

No foundry that works up old castings should be with- 
out "Atlas Powder." 

A cartridge or two of " Atlas Powder " laid upon the 
most stubborn casting and covered with sand, will do in 
a few seconds, and at a trifling cost, the work that two 
men with sledges would accomplish in a day. 

When blasting " Chills-" or ''Salamanders" that of ten 
occur at blast furnaces, it is best to drill holes of sufficient 
size and depth; but for castings press the powder close 
to the place you desire to break, then cover with a few 
shovelfuls of fine sand or clay. 

Blasting in cities and towns and near where there are 
a large number of workmen, is much safer with ' ' Atlas 
Powder" than with gunpowder, as the fragments are 
not thrown so far. 

BLASTING STUMPS AND FELLING TREES. 

In removing stumps a suitable strong augur should be 
provided for making a hole in which to put the charge — 
a two or two and one-half inch augur, with a long 
handle, say five feet, being much the best for that pur- 



24 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 



pose. An ordinary augur with a stem of sufficient length 
welded on, is frequently used. If you have many stumps 
to take out it would be well to have both a dirt and a 
wood augur, if only a few, you might get along with a 
crowbar. 

Where the hole should be made. — The hole should be 
made so that the powder can be placed in the ground 
directly under the centre of the stump, varying from a 
few inches to a foot in depth, according to the nature of 
the soil. If there is a tap root it would be well to bore 
through it; if the powder is put on the side of the tap 
root it would be likely to blow out that side, and leave 
the other in the ground. Find the best place to get 
under the centre of the stump and as close up to the 
solid part as possible, or into the solid wood. The up- 
hill side is best as it offers most resistance. 

It is well, also, to place the hole between two of the 
lai;gest roots. 

EXAMPLES. 



Hemlock Stump. — Diameter, 2" T 
8 J minutes. 1 cartridge, 1^ X 8 A. 



3^ 4'' high. Time, 




Before Blasting.— Hole under Letter A, shows 
position for Cartridge. 

Completely shattered, and roots badly broken; so 
much so, as to be easily taken out without digging. 
Hemlock Stump. — Diameter, 18"'; 2' 3'^ high. Time, 

3 minutes, i cartridge, li X 8 A. 

Well shattered, and all roots but one, and that a small 
one, broken off. 

Sassafras Stump. — Diameter, 13'"; 2V' high. 
3i minutes. 1 cartridge, 1^X6 E-f. 

Sassafras Stump. — Diameter, 11 i'^; 2T' high. 

4 minutes. 1 cartridge, 1^ X 6 E-j-. 



Time, 
Time, 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 25 

Locust Stump.— BiMneter, 15f'; 19'^ high. Time, 
3i minutes. 1 cartridge, li X 6 E+. 



After Blasting. 

Locust Stump, —Bmmeier, 18''; 26'' high. Time, ^ 
minutes. 1 cartridge, li X 6 C. 

The foregoing gives full particulars as to size of car- 
tridges, grade of powder, diameter of tree or stump, and 
length of time consumed for each blast. 

In second growth chestnuts there is directly under the 
stump the decayed remains of the original stump ; this 
is soft and the force of the powder when placed on it 
seems to merely scatter the stuff, and has no marked 
effect upon the stump. To overcome this difficulty, 
however, place a good sized flat stone under the stump 
between the roots, leaving only room on top of the stone 
for a cartridge; this having some resistance will cause 
the powder to lift out the stump. The same will apply 
in many other cases of a like nature. 

In blasting very large and solid stumps, the following 
plan has been found to work successfully: Bore three or 
four holes under the stump from opposite sides, being 
careful to have them cross about the centre of it, and 
have the bottom of each hole directly under a large root. 
First, ram well home in each hole part of a cartridge Oa 
more, as the case may require. Place the balance of the 
charge needed at the point where the holes cross under 
the centre of the stump, then tamp all the holes well. 

This manner of loading, as will be observed, leaves an 
open passage way from the centre charge to those under 
other parts of the stump, and, on firing the powder at 
the centre, there will be an instantaneous explosion of 



26 ' HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 

all tlie charges, thus insuring better results, with less 
powder, than where the entire charge is placed under the 
centre only. 

It is well to note here the great superiority of the 
Electric Battery (*' Magneto") over fuse in firing, on 
account of its ability to lire all the holes simultaneously. 
In a large stump, for example, charges can be put in on 
different sides and fired simultaneously, thus giving a 
combined lifting force, distributed evenly under the 
stump. Always use a battery when the amount of work 
to be done warrants it. 

Felling Trees. — Load similarly to stump blasting. 
When the explosion takes place, the tree above the blast 
jumps about a foot, and then falls with the wind ; the 
stump is splintered down into the roots and can be read- 
ily removed. 

PRECAUTIONS. 

*' Atlas" oe^rtridges should not be prepared for use 
until the holes are ready to receive them, and they should 
then be immediately placed in position and not be left 
lying around. 

Powder and caps should be kept well apart, except 
when they are being prepared for use. 

Avoid, as far as possible, pressing the rod or rammer 
against the exploding cap. 

Frozen cartridges should not be used under any cir- 
cumstances. They are very difficult to explode by cap or 
powder, thereby hazarding a "missfire," and are expen- 
sive, because when exploded are not nearly as effective 
in a blast as unfrozen cartridges. 

When frozen do not expose them to a quick heat, but 
place them in a warm room, until soft, before using ; or 
fill a pail with cartridges and set it in a larger pail, 
or other receptacle containing hot water, and cover 
closely; or, what is better still, let the operator carry 
them about his person until they are sufficiently thawed 
for use, (See Article on "Thawing.") 

The main difficulty in the use of "Atlas Powder" in 
the winter, arises from the fact that blasters, who are 
not accustomed to the use of high explosives or powders 
that freeze, too often charge their holes with frozen 
powder, and, of course, fail to explode more than the 
little immediately in contact with the cap, and then, un- 
justly, condemn the powder when the failure is due to 
their own negligence. 

Be sure you do not push the cap overhead into the car- 
tridge, or the fuse will set it on fire and burn and waste 
the powder. To avoid this, let a quarter of an inch, at 
least, of the cap remain outside the substance contained 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 27 

in the cartridge when you fire a shot, and you will have 
the full power of the explosion without any loss of force. 

Prohibit absolutely the removing of the tamping in 
cases of missfire, unless water tamping has been used. 

MissFiJiES. — A missfire is usually due to a defect in 
the fuse, the want of making water-tight the detonator 
cap and securing it to the primer, the fuse may have 
been pulled out of the cap, or the cap and fuse both 
pulled away from the primer: missfires are also caused 
by the use of cartridges not thawed or only imperfectly 
thawed, or from other causes. 

If you have a missfire, never attempt to drill it out 
down to the charge^ but scrape out a short distance^ far 
enough to put in a short piece of cartridge and a fresh 
primer^ and fire. This will explode the charge belovj. 
Too much care cannot be used around a hole that has 
missed fire. 



ARTICLES FOR USE WITH "ATLAS 
POWDER." 

Caps or Exploders. — These should be of the best 
quality, not less than "triple force" in strength, and of 
twenty-five calibre. Caps should be kept away from 
powder until ready to use. Great precaution should 
be taken in handling caps. 

Safety Fuse. — Double tape and single tape fuse 
should be used, double tape for regular work, and single 
tape in perfectly dry work. Fuse should fit the cap 
tiglitly. We supply fuse that accurately fits the caps. 
Where fuse does not fit the cap accurately, it can be 
made to do so by paring it down or by wrapping end 
with paper. Cotton and hemp fuse should not be used 
because they will not fit the caps, and because they will 
"spit fire," and may burn some of the powder without 
exploding it. The best is the cheapest. 

Tamping Kod. — A hard loood tamping rod should 
always be used ; firsts because it is the best implement 
to use to press the powder close to the bottom of the 
hole; second^ it is sufiicient for all practical purposes. 

Nippers. — Nippers made for the purpose are the best 
to use for securing caps to fuse ; but, in their absence, the 
open end of the cap should be pressed tightly on to the 
fuse, and the blunt edge of a knife may be employed to 
dent in the sides of the cap to make it fit the fuse. Do 
not jam the fuse against the fulminate in cap. 

Tubing. — Where deep submarine blasting is done, the 
drill-hole should first be carefully cleared of borings and 
a metal tubing inserted to near the bottom, and the car- 
tridges carefully pressed down into it. 



28 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 






TO PREPARE A CARTRIDGE FOR USE. 

Wliere Cap and Safety Fuse are Used. 

Take a piece of "safety fuse" of the required length, 
and carefully insert one end in a blasting cap, crimping 
the open end of the cap (Ko. 1) tightly around 
the fuse to hold it in position (No. 2). After 
this is done take a cartridge, open one end by 
unfolding the paper (not cutting nor tearing it), 
and insert the cap two-thirds of its length in 
the powder; then gather the folds of the car- 
tridge around the fuse and tie them with a 
string (I^o. 3). This will hold the fuse (already 
capped) in its place. The cartridge is ready 
then to be put in the hole made to receive it. 

Priming. — We recommend the use of primers 
as surest to explode the charge. 

Make the primers fresh, as you want to use 
them. 

to make a Primer. — Cut square off a piece of 
fuse the length required ; this insures fresh pow- 
der at the end that is to go into the cap. 

The fuse should be the exact size to fit the 
cap, but if too large, pare down to fit. If it is 
too small wrap it with paper until it will fit. 
Now insert the fuse into the cap and secure in 
the cartridge as shown above, then cut the car- 
tridge in two, just below the cap, and your 
primer is ready. Primers should always be 
made from cartridges a little smaller than the 
bore- hole. Whole cartridges may be used for 
primers. 

If the primer is to be used in water, care 
must be taken before inserting the cap end of 
the fuse into the powder, to make it water-tight 
at the junction of the cap with the fuse by the 
use of grease, tar, soap, or otherwise, or by fit- 
ting the cap close to the fuse, with cap-nippers. 
Only one cartridge in a hole need be fitted 
with a cap, its explosion firing the remainder 
of the load. 

Cartridges. — "Atlas Powder" is always put up in 
cartridges made of a thick manilla paper thoroughly 
coated with paraffine, rendering them impervious to 
moisture. 

Sizes vary from | inch to 3 inches in diameter, and 
from 3 to 18 inches in length. 

The more usual sizes vary from 1 to 2 inches in diame- 
ter by from 6 to 8 inches in length; the standard size 
being 1^ by 8 inches. 
Usual sizes always in stock, special sizes made to 



3 

t^ 






HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 



29 



order. All orders should be placed promptly to avoid 
delays in delivery. 

Cartridges of the right size are preferable, but you can 
load the largest hole with the smallest cartridges by slit- 
ting them on the side and pressing them down in the 
drill-hole with a loooden tamping rod. Do not slit car- 
tridges where water is present in the holes. 




o 




We do not count the cartridges in each case, as they 
may vary in weight, but always put in a full weight of 
powder. 

'^Atlas Powder" is packed in fifty and twenty-five 
pound boxes. In packing, the cartridges are laid upon 
their sides and separated by, and surrounded with, saw- 
dust. Nothing short of an extra strong blasting cap 
or a bullet with a velocity of five hundred feet a second 
will explode these cartridges. 



30 HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 

ELECTRIC BLASTING APPARATUS. 
(BATTERY.) 

The blasting machine which has the greatest sale at 
the present time is a Magis^eto-Electkic instrument of 
small size, weighing about sixteen pounds, occupying 
considerably less than one-half a cubic foot of space. 
For full description on this subject, with illustrations, 
see our catalogue. 

The great advantages in employing electricity in blast- 
ing are : First, safety and protection of life; secondly, 
economy of explosive ; thirdly, economy of capital and 
time; fourthly, overcoming obstacles that nothing else 
loill, and other advantages, such as "firing underwater," 
sinking or driving in soft sandstone, and sundry opera- 
tions not included in mining, viz. : Granite splitting, 
rooting up old and new stubs or roots of trees, etc. 
First, safety and protection of life are most clearly seen 
in its application to mining purposes. The charges, 
whether few or many, can be easily united, and the 
workmen know as soon as the charges are fired that 
none of them can possibly " hang fire," in the same man- 
ner as the various time fuses do, sometimes causing se- 
vere bodily injury or loss of life. This enables them to 
return at once to their work, without delay and loss of 
time, especially if they have a proper explosive, a matter 
of great importance in operations of this kind. Secondly, 
economy of explosive. This must be evident when we 
know the explosive force of all nitro- glycerine prepara- 
tions exerts itself equally in all directions from the point 
of detonation. The combined force of any given number 
of charges in a mass of rock exploding simultaneously, 
must meet with far less resistance than one or two 
charges exploding singly or separately. Thirdly, econ- 
omy of capital and time. Loss of time must be loss of 
capital, especially where there is a large quantity of 
water to pump and a heavy staff of men to pay. 

In magnetic iron mines the "Frictional" Machine 
fails through diversion or dissipation of the electricity, 
but the '^ Magneto" works there perfectly well; and in 
submarine or very wet work is also superior, as 
imperfect insulation is not always an obstacle to its suc- 
cessful working. 

One of these small (No. 3) "Magneto" instruments 
has fired fifteen fuzes — the current of electricity having 
been conveyed through one-quarter of a mile of bare 
iron telegraph wire in the water at the bottom of a canal, 
the fuzes also being immersed. 

The capacity of this machine is for about twelve or 
fifteen holes, though under entirely favorable circum- 
stances many more can be fired. 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 31 

We also have a larger *' Magneto" instrument (No. 4) 
which will fire twenty to forty holes, although, as with 
the small battery, under favorable circumstances many 
more can be fired. 

As to durability, the construction is such that one 
should last as long as a clock. No uncertainty exists. 
They have never failed to give satisfaction. Many of 
them have been used in very wet shafts, and have been 
found invaluable. 

The patent self-discharging arrangement has made 
them far superior, for practical use, to any instrument 
ever made. 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING ELECTRO- 
BLASTING MACHINE. 

A fuze or exploder with two wires attached is used ; 
it should be fastened to the cartridge in the same man- 
ner as the ordinary blasting cap. Use fuzes of sufficient 
length to allow ten or twelve inches of the wires to extend 
above the ground after the hole is charged. 

Tamp the hole carefully with dry sand or fine earth. 
Care must be observed in tamping not to injure or cut 
the insulated covering upon the fuze wires. Bare por- 
tions of wire and bare joints should never be allowed to 
touch the ground, especially when the ground is wet. 

When all the holes to be fired at one time are tamped 
separate the ends of the two wires in each hole, and by 
the use of connecting wire join one wire of the first hole 
with one of the second, the other or free wire of the 
second with one of the third, so proceeding to the two 
end holes, at each of which one free wire is left 

All connections of wires should be made by hooking 
and twisting together the bare and clean ends. 

Great care should he taken that the connections are 
clean, bright and well twisted; more failures occur from 
improper connection than any other cause. 

The charges having all been connected as directed 
above, the free wire of the first hole should be joined to 
one of the "leading " wires, and the free wire of the last 
hole with the other of the two leading wires. The lead- 
ing wires should be long enough to reach a point at a 
safe distance from the blast — say two hundred and fifty 
feet at least. 

All being ready, and not until the men are at a safe dis- 
tance, connect the leading wires, one to each of the pro- 
jecting screws on the front side of the machine, through 
each of which a hole is bored for the purpose, and bring 
the nuts down firmly upon the wires. 

IS'ow, to fire, taking hold of the handle for the pur- 
pose, lift the rack (or square rod toothed upon one side) 



32 HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 

to its full length, and press it down, for the first inch of its 
stroke with moderate speed, but finish the stroke with 
all force, bringing the rack to the bottom of the box with 
a solid thud^ and the blast will be made. 

Platinum Fuzes. 

*' Fuzes," sometimes called ''Exploders," are used 
with the "Magneto" Machines. 

A fuze consists of a fulminate cap into the open end 
of which two copper wires, connected by a platinum 
bridge at their ends, are soldered. The wires vary in 
length from four to thirty feet. The above wires are 
cotton covered, which is heavy and will not strip. Those 
of gutta-percha covering if required, made to order; but 
this nicety of insulation by gutta-percha covering is not 
needed for general work, and only where blasting is to 
be done in deep water, probably not then, unless several 
fuzes are to be fired simultaneously through a great 
length of submerged wire. 

LEADING WIRE. 

Enough is needed with each machine to make two 
leaders of sufficient length to reach from the blast to a 
safe distance for the person to stand who shall operate 
the machine. Five hundred feet is the quantity usually 
sold, but in some cases a thousand have been used. 
Sold in coils of five hundred feet each. 

CONNECTING WIRE. 

This is sold in coils or spools of one or two pounds 
weight, and is used in connecting the fuzes to each other 
where several charges are to be fired simultaneously. 
See " Directions for Using Machine." A small quantity 
only of this will be needed if the fuze wires are picked 
up after each blast, as they can be twisted together and 
used in place of connecting wire. 

INPORTANT. 

To insure the prompt dispatch of goods, persons or- 
dering should state with precision just what is wanted. 
An order reading " same as before" is unsatisfactory in 
many cases, botli to us and the person who sends it. 
Mistakes are liable to occur in filling an indefinite order. 

In ordering "Atlas Powdek," please state the grade 
wanted, as well as the needed diameter and length of 
cartridge. Or state character of work to be done, when 
we will ship grade adapted to work. 

In ordering Safety Fuse give the particular kind. We 
keep five different grades constantly in stock. 

Exploders for use with Safety Fuse are called " Blast- 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 33 

ingCaps;" those used with Magneto-Blasting Machines 
are termed *'Phitinum Fuzes," and have wires attaclied 
Vruich vary in length. We have but one kind of '* Blast- 
ing Caps," and they are the best that are made. 

Caution. — Avoid inferior compounds and cheap fuse 
and caps. In the end they are more expensive, and en- 
danger life. 

All goods constantly in stock and ready for immediate 
shipment. 

All our goods are guaranteed in every respect. 

MEMORANDA. 

A car-load of "Atlas Powder" contains 400 cases of 
50 lbs. each, say 20,000 lbs. net. 

A box containing 50 lbs. of "Atlas Powder," of any 
grade or size, weighs 59 lbs. gross. 

A box containing 25 lbs. of "Atlas Powder," of any 
grade or size, weighs 33 lbs. gross. 

Safety Fuse is packed in . barrels, each barrel contain- 
ing a uniform number of feet, viz. : — 

Single Tape Fuse, 6,000 feet in each barrel. Double 
Tape Fuse, 5,000 feet in each barrel. Triple Tape Fuse, 
5,000 feet in each barrel. 

We also keep for those that so desire Cotton Fuse, 
12,000 feet in each barrel; Hemp Fuse, 12,000 feet in each 
barrel; but would recommend Single and Double Tape 
Fuse for regular work. 

The very first blasts are generally conclusive of the 
great superiority of "Atlas Powder" over its many 
rivals, but its full economical value can only appear when 
workmen have gained experience enough not to waste its 
power by overcharging, nor on the other hand attempting 
impossibilities. 

Do not compare powder bills, but take total cost per 
cubic yard or ton ; and consider the smaller drill-holes 
needed, and the absence of danger in using a Standard 
Powder, 

ORDERING. 

Do not think your order too small to get the Best 
High Explosive — "Atlas Powder," and to find out 
all about its use. 

In addition to our ''Atlas Powder" we supply any- 
thing in the line of " Judson K. K. P.," "Blasting 
Powder" and Caps, Fuzes (Electro-Exploders), Fuse, 
Electric Blasting Machines, etc. These articles always 
in stock. 

We are always pleased to answer any questions and 
will send our "Illustrated Catalogue," giving de- 
tails and cuts showing how to use "Atlas Powder," 
on application. 



34 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 



All orders (whether large or small) for powder are 
filled by us from our nearest agency by telegraphic ad- 
vice, thereby insuring to the customer prompt and regu- 
lar deliveries. Address all letters and telegrams to 

repau:n^o chemical co. 

at any of the following principal offices : — 

Wilmington, Delaware, Cor. 9tli and Market Streets. 
Chicago, 111., 1321-1322 Monadnock Block. 
Boston, Mass., 13 Broad Street. 
IS^ew York, N". Y., Havemeyer Building. 
St. Louis, Mo., Wainwright Building. 
Atlanta, Ga., Y. M. C. A. Building. 
Denver, Col., 1632 17th Street. 
Cleveland, 0., 40 Prospect Street. 

Also for sale by the Agents of the following Com- 
panies : — 

Messrs. E. L DU POISTT DE NEMOURS & CO., WIL- 

MmClTOJSr, DEL. 

LAFLm & RAND POWDER CO., NEW YORK CITY. 

HAZARD POWDER CO., NEW YORK CITY. 



PRINCIPAL 

Alabama. 

Anniston. 

Birmingham. 

Gadsden. 

Arkansas. 

Fort Smith. 
Little Rock. 

Colorado. 

Creede. 

Cripple Creek. 

Denver. 

Georgetown. 

LeadvilUe. 

Platoria. 

Pueblo. 

Connecticut. 

Bridgeport. 
New Haven. 

Delaware. 

Wilmington. 

District of 
Columbia. 

Washington. 



AGENCIES IN THE UNITED 
STATES. 



Georgia. 

Atlanta. 

Athens. 

Augusta. 

Cartersville. 

Columbus. 

Savannah. 

Stone Mountain. 

Illinois. 

Chicago. 

Joliet. 

Springfield. 

Indiana. 
Indianapolis. 

Iowa. 

Des Moines. 

Dubuque. 

Burlington. 

Manquoketa. 

Waterloo. 

Kansas. 
Galena. 

Kentucky. 

Frankfort. 
Ijcxington. 
Louisville. 



Louisiana. 
New Orleans. 

Maine. 

Bangor. 

Portland. 

Rockland. 

Maryland. 

Baltimore. 
Cumberland. 

Massachusetts. 

Boston. 
Northampton. 
New Bedford. 

Michigan. 
Lansing. 

Minnesota. 
St. Paul. 

Missouri. 

Aurora. 
Joplin. 
Kansas City. 
Springfield. 
St. Louis. 



4 



HIGH EXPLOSIVES. 



35 



Montana. 

Billings. 
Deer Lodge. 
Helena. 

Nebraska. 
Omaha. 

New Jersey. 

Kenvil. 

Repauno (P. O. 
Chester, Pa.). 

New Mexico. 

Sante Fe. 
Silver City. 

New York. 

Amsterdam. 

Buffalo. 

Canton. 

Creek Locks. 

Elmira. 

Gouverneur. 

Millerton. 

New York City. 

Port Jervis. 

Poughkeepsie. 

Syracuse. 

North Carolina. 

Ashville. 
Charlotte. 
Concord. 
Salisbury. 



Ohio. 

Cleveland. 
Columbus. 
Cincinnati. 
Ironton. 

Oklahoma. 

Oklahoma City. 

Pennsylvania. 

Allentown. 

Bangor. 

Catasauqua. 

Chambersburg. 

Easton. 

Harrisburg. 

Lockhaven. 

Mauch Chunk. 

Norristown. 

Philadelphia. 

Pittsburgh. 

Potts ville. 

Reading. 

Scranton. 

Rhode Island. 
Providence. 

South Carolina. 

Charleston. 

Chester. 

Columbia. 

Greenville. 

Lancaster. 

Spartensburg. 

South Dakota. 

Deadwood. 
Rapid City. 



Tennessee. 

Bristol. 

Chattanooga. 

Johnson City. 

Knoxville. 

Memphis. 

Nashville. 

Shellmound. 

Texas. 

Bowie. 
Dennison. 
Eagle Pass. 
El Paso. 

Vermont. 

Fairhaven. 

Virginia. 

Buena Vista. 

Danville. 

Lexington. 

Lynchburg. 

Roanoke. 

Richmond. 

Staunton. 

Winchester. 

West Virginia. 

Charleston. 
Martinsburg. 

Wisconsin. 

Chippewa Falls. 

Eau Claire. 

Fond du Lac. 

Milwaukee. 

Pittsville. 

Marshfield. 

Wausau. 



And in Over 500 Other Places in the United States. 

City of Mexico. 



Also 



ROCK DRILLING. 

Condensed from ^^Trautwine^s Pocket-Book,'''^ 



HAND DEILLS. 

Holes for blasting drilled by hand are generally from 
2i to 4 feet deep ; and from 1^ to 2 inches in diameter. 

The Churn Drill is a round bar of iron, usually 
about IJ inches in diameter, and 6 to 8 feet long, with 
a steel cutting edge, or bit (weighing about a pound, 
and a little wider than the diameter of the bar), welded 
to its lower end. A man lifts it a few inches, or rather 
catches it as it rebounds, turns it partially around, and 
lets it fall again. 

A man can drill from 5 to 15 feet of hole, nearly two 
inches in diameter, in a day of 10 hours, progress depend- 
ing on X3haracter of the rock. From 7 to 8 feet of holes, 
If inches diameter, is about a fair day's work in hard 
gneiss, granite, or compact silicious limestone; 5 to 7 
feet in tough compact hornblende ; 3 to 5 in solid quartz ; 
8 to 9 in ordinary marble or limestone ; 9 to 10 in sand- 
stone, which, however, may vary within all these limits. 
When the hole is more than about 4 feet deep two men 
are put to the drill. Artesian and oil wells in rock are 
bored on the principle of the churn drill. 

The Jumper, as now used, is much shorter than the 
churn drill. One man (the holder) sitting down, lifts it 
slightly, and turns it partly around, during the intervals 
between the blows from about 8 to 12 lb. hammers, 
wielded by two other men (the strikers). It can be used 
for holes of smaller diameters than can be made by the 
churn drill, because the holder can more readily keep 
the cutting edge at the exact spot required to be drilled. 
It is also better in conglomerate rock, the hard silicious 
pebbles of which deflect the churn drill from its vertical 
direction, so that the hole becomes crooked, and the 
drill becomes bound in it. Either tool requires resharpen- 
ing at about each 6 to 18 inches depth of hole ; and the 
wear of the steel edge requires a new one to be put on 
every 2 to 4 days. 

With iron jumpers the top becomes battered away 
rapidly. As the hole becomes deeper, longer drills are 
frequently used than at the beginning. The smaller the dia- 
meter of the hole the greater depth can be drilled in a given 
time ; and the depth will be greater in proportion than 
the decrease of diameter. Where '* Atlas Powder" 

(36) 



ROCK DRILLING. 37 

is used in blasting this decrease in the diameter of holes 
is a source of great economy, as drilling, not the cost of 
powder, is the great expense in blasting. 

In the hand drill the same man uses both the hammer 
and the short drill; it is chiefly used for shallow holes 
of small diameter. 

MACHINE DRILLS. 

Machine rock drills bore much more rapidly and eco- 
nomically than hand drills. They drill in any direction, 
and can often be used in boring holes so located that they 
cannot be bored by hand. They work either by steam 
or air. The air is best for tunnels and shafts, because, 
after leaving the drills, it aids ventilation. Machine 
drills are of two kinds, rotating drills and percussion 
drills. 

In Rotating Drills the drill rod is a long tube, 
revolving about its axis. The end of this tube, hardened 
so as to form an annular cutting edge, is kept in contact 
with the rock, and, by its rotation, cuts in it a cylindri- 
cal hole, generally with a solid core in the centre. The 
drill rod is fed forward, or into the hole, as the drilling 
proceeds. The debris is removed from the hole by a 
constant stream of water, which is led to the bottom of 
the hole through the hollow drill rod, and which carries 
the debris up through the narrow space between the out- 
side of the drill-rod and the sides of the hole. 

The Diamond Drill is the only form of rotary drill 
used extensively in America. In it the boring rod con- 
sists of a number of tubes jointed rigidly together at 
their ends by hollow interior sleeves. The boring is 
done either by a '' core bit " or a ^'•boring head.'''' In the 
^' core bif^ the cutting-edge has imbedded in it a num- 
ber of diamonds. These are so arranged as to project 
slightly from both its inner and outer edges. Annular 
spaces are thus left between core and core barrel, and 
between the latter and the walls of the hole. These 
spaces permit the ingress and egress of the water used 
in removing the debris from the hole, and at the same 
time prevent the core from binding in the barrel, or the 
latter in the hole. Just above the " core bit" the " core 
lifter''^ is screwed to the barrel. The core lifter has 
the same outer diameter as the barrel. Inside it is 
slightly coned, with base of cone upward. The core 
lifter by its arrangement, when the core barrel is raised, 
breaks off the core at the bottom, and it can be brought 
up; these sections of core are very useful at times, show- 
ing the exact character and position of each stratum 
drilled through. 

Where it is not desired to preserve the core intact the 
'''•boring head''"' may be used instead of the '* core bit." 



38 ROCK DRILLING. 

* 

This is a solid bit (except that it is perforated with 
holes, which allow the water to pass out from the drill 
rod), and is armed with diamonds, some of which pro- 
ject beyond its circumference. 

Advantages and Uses. — The diamond drill bores per- 
fectly circular holes, in straight lines, and in any direc- 
tion, to great depths ; from 300 to 1500 feet being not 
uncommon. It brings up unbroken cores, from 8 to 16 
feet long, showing precise nature and stratification of the 
rock penetrated, rendering it very valuable in test bor- 
ings, prospecting of mines, sinking artesian wells, etc. 
The roundness of the holes bored enables the use of 
casing of nearly as great diameter as that of the hole ; 
and their straightness is an advantage in case a pump is 
to be used. 

In soft rock a bit may drill through 200 feet or more 
without resetting. In very hard rocks similar drills will 
wear out in 10 feet or less. 

These drills are made by the Penna. Diamond Drill 
Co., Pottsville, Pa., American Diamond Rock-Boring 
Co., JSTew York, M. C. Bullock Manufacturing Co., Chi- 
cago, and others. 

PERCUSSION MACHINE DRILLS. 

This class of machine drills is the one in most univer- 
sal use in quarries and general construction work. The 
leading manufacturers are the Rand Drill Co., 23 Park 
Place, Kew York, and the Ingersoll Rock Drill Co., 
10 Park Place, ISTew York. 

In percussion drilling machines the drill bar is driven 
forcibly against the rock by the pressure of steam or of 
compressed air, acting upon a piston, moving in a cylin- 
der, and making about 300 strokes per minute. The 
rotation of the drill bar is accomplished automatically. 
The cylinder is free to slide longitudinally in a fixed 
frame or shell, to which it is attached, and which in 
turn is fixed to a tripod or other stand upon which the 
machine is supported. The drill rod, corresponding to a 
churn drill, is fastened by a chuck to the end of the 
piston rod. The drilling is begun with a short drill rod, 
and with the cylinder as far from the hole as the length 
of the shell will permit. As the bit penetrates the rock 
the cylinder is fed forward (toward the hole), either 
automatically, or by hand, as far as the length of the 
shell permits. The drilling is then stopped by shutting 
off the steam, and the cylinder is run back, by reversing 
the motion of the feeding apparatus. The short drill 
bar is then removed, and, if the drilling is to be con- 
tinued, a longer one substituted in its place, and the 
process repeated. As the act of drilling wears the edge 
of the bit, thus reducing its diameter somewhat, the hole 



ROCK DRILLING. 39 

will of course be tapering, or of a slightly less diameter at 
bottom than at top. The second bit must therefore be 
of slightly less diameter than the lirst— say from ^^ to i 
inch less; the third must be less than the second, and 
so on. On the other hand, in long holes, the drill bar 
will seldom be in a perfectly straight line, so that the 
bit instead of striking always in the same spot will 
describe a circle, and thus enlarge the hole. 

The shell, in which the cylinder slides, is provided 
with a^ arrangement by which it may be clamped either 
to 2(> tripod or to a long bar or column, Silong which it 
may slide. The column, if horizontal, may rest upon 
two pairs of legs; or it may be braced in any position 
against the opposite sides of a narrow cut, or against the 
floor and ceiling of a ^unnel-heading, etc., in which case 
one of its ends is provided with a screw, which is run 
out so as to cause the two ends of the column to press 
firmly against the opposite rock walls ; or rather against 
wooden blocks which are always placed between each 
end of the column and the rock. In any case, the 
supports of the drill are so jointed that it can bore in 
any direction. 

Frequently the drill is clamped to a short arm. which 
in turn is clamped to the column and projects at right 
angles from it. The arm may be slid lengthwise of the 
column and may be revolved around it, and thus may be 
placed in any desired position and there clamped. This 
gives the drill a greater range of motion, and enables it 
to bore holes over a greater space than would otherwise 
be possible without moving the column. 

In tunnels, one or more drills may be mounted upon a 
drill carriage, travelling upon a railroad track running 
longitudinally of the tunnel. Upon this track the car- 
riage is moved up to the work or run back from it when 
a blast is to be fired. The gauge of the track may be 
made wide enough to admit of a second track of narrow^er 
gauge, running underneath the drill carriage. Upon 
said narrower track the cars are run which carry away 
the debris. 

The pressure used in the cylinders of percussion drills 
is usually from about 60 to 70 pounds per square inch. 
In an hour one will drill a hole from 1 to 2 inches in 
diameter, and from 3 to 10 feet deep, depending on the 
character of the rock and the size of the machine. A bit 
requires sharpening at about every 2 to 4 feet depth of 
hole. 

One blacksmith and helper can sharpen drills for five 
or six machines. 

The bits are of many different shapes, varying with the 
nature of the work to be done. For uniform hard rock 
the bit has two cutting edges, forming a cross with equal 



40 ROCK DRILLING. 

arms at right angles to each other. For seamy rock, 
the arms of the cross are equal, but form two acute and 
two obtuse angles with each other, as in the letter X. 
For soft rock, the cutting edge sometimes has the shape 
of the letter Z. 

Each drill requires one man to operate it. Two or 
three men are required for moving the heavier sizes from 
place to place. One man can attend to a small air com- 
pressor and its boiler. 

Running Percussion Drili s, — In setting tripod spot 
a place for each leg. If the surface of the rock is slant- 
ing or uneven, point off level where the hole is to be 
drilled so as to avoid a glancing blow. Put oil in the 
nozzle of the throttle valve and in the back head through 
the hole provided. Blow out the hose before connecting 
to the drill. In starting a new machine with steam, 
slack back the nuts on the cylinder side rods, so as to 
leave the heads quite loose. Open the throttle valve and 
the water will blow out through the heads, and then 
steam will appear and heat the machine. Work the 
piston up and down two or three times by hand and it 
will go off all right. 



EARTHWORK, ETC. 



EARTHWORK— ANGLES OP SLOPES. 



Slopes 


itol 


= 63° 30' 


( ( 


f '' 1 


= 53° 00' 


(( 


1 " 1 


= 45° 00' 


u 


li " 1 


-= 38° 40^ 


a 


U " 1 


= 33° 42' 



Slopes If to 1 
ct 4 " 1 



= 29° 44' 
= 26° 35' 
= 18° 25' 
= 14° 12' 



NATURAL SLOPES OF EARTHS WITH 
HORIZONTAL LINE. 



Gravel . . Average 40° 
Dry sand . . " 38° 

Sand ... " 22° 

Vegetable earth '' 28.° 
Compact earth . ' ' 50° 



Shingle 
Rubble . . 
Clay, well drained 
Clay, wet . . 



Average 39° 



45° 
45° 
16° 



WEIGHT OP EARTHS, ROCKS, ETC. 



C( 



Weight of cubic yard of Sand 

Gravel 
Mud 
Marl 
Clay 
Chalk 
Sandstone 
Shale 
Quartz 
Granite 
Trap 
Slate 





u 




-: • 



































about 30 cwt. 



30 

25 
26 
31 
36 
39 
40 
41 
42 
42 
43 



u 

(C 

u 
(; 
(( 
u 
ki 
u 

u 



QUANTITY OP EARTHS EQUAL TO A TON. 

21 cubic feet. 



Sand, River, as filled into carts 

'' Pit 
Gravel, coarse " 
Marl '' 

Clay, stiff " 

Chalk in lumps, as filled 
Earth, mould 



u 



22 
23 
28 
28 
29 
33 



Earth and clay increase in bulk i when dug, but sub- 
side I in height and decrease J in bulk when formed into 
embankments. 

(41) 



42 EARTHWORK, ETC. 

Sand and gravel increase in bulk ^^ when dug; sand 
subsides in embankment i in height; gravel from j^o to 
yi^, according to coarseness. 

Rock increases ^ of its original bulk when excavated. 

COST OP LABOR ON EMBANKMENTS. 

{Elwood Morris.) 

Single Horse and Cart. — Loaded cart in excavation 
and embankment can go 100 lineal feet and return in 1 
minute, while moving. Time lost in loading, waiting, 
etc. = 4 minutes per load. 

A medium laborer will load in a cart, in 10 hours, 
cubic yards of earth measured in the bank as follows: 
gravelly earthy 10; loam^ 13; sandy earthy 14. 

Carts are loaded from banks : Descending hauling^ \ of 
a cubic yard, in bank; level hauling^ f of a cubic yard, in 
bank; ascending hauling^ i of a cubic yard, in bank. 

Loosening. — In Loam. — A 3-horse plow will loosen 250 
to 800 cubic yards in 10 hours; cost of do., from 1 to 8 
cents per cubic yard, when wages = 105 cents per day. 

Trimming and Bossing =.2 cents per cubic yard. 

Scooping. — A scoop load = ji^ of a cubic yard, in bank. 
The time lost in loading, unloading, and turning, j)er 
load = 1^ minutes. Time lost for every 70 feet of dis- 
tance from excavation to bank and returning = 1 minute. 

Hauling Stone. — A cart, with horses, over an ordi- 
nary road, will travel 1.1 miles per hour. A four-horse 
team will haul 25 to 36 cubic feet of limestone per load. 

Time of unloading, loading, etc., averages 35 minutes 
per trip ; cost of do. , with horse-crane at quarry and un- 
loading by hand, when labor — $1.25 per day and horse 
= 75, is 25 cents per perch = 24.75 cubic feet. 

The work done by an animal is greatest when the ve- 
locity with which he moves is \ of the greatest velocity 
he can move when unloaded, and the force then exerted 
is equal to .45 of the force the animal can exert at a dead 
pull. 

ORDINARY RULE FOR CALCULATING 
QUANTITIES IN EARTH WORK. 

Kule 1, End Areas. — Take the two side cuttings as 
marked on slope stakes, add them together, divide by 2, 
and multiply by one-half the road bed. This gives ./irsi 
product. Take the two distances out from the centre 
line to the two slope stakes, add them together, divide 
by 2 and multiply by the centre cutting as marked on the 
centre stake. This gives second product. 

Add lirst and second products together and you get 
the End Area in square feet. 



EARTHWORK, ETC. 43 

Rule 2. — To get the quantity in cubic yards between 
two adjacent end areaa. 

Add the two end areas as computed by the above rule, 
divide this product by 2 and you get Average Area in 
square feet. 

Multiply average area by the distance (in feet) between 
the two end areas and divide product by 27 and the final 
result thus obtained is the required volume in cubic 
yards. 

This rule applies to Jills as well as cuts and to any 
roadway or slope. Take all measurements in feet and 
tenths of feet (not inches). 

Example. — Koad bed = 18 feet. Side slopes 1 to 1. 
Centre cutting 6.2 feet. Left cutting 7.0 feet. Right 
cutting 10.0 feet. 

Then to get the distance that the left slope stake is 
from the centre line, we have one-half the road-bed plus 
the projection of the slope, in the present case 9 feet 
(one-half the road-bed) + 7 feet (projection of slope) = 
16 feet out from centre line. For the distance out of 
right slope stake from centre line we have 9 + 10 =::19 
feet out from centre line. In general practice these dis- 
tances out are marked on the slope stakes or they can be 
measured in the field. 

By Rule 1.— 7 -f 10 = 17, 17 -^ 2 = 8. 5. 

8.5 X 9=76.5 (first product). 

16+19 = 35, 35-^2 = 17.5, 17.5 X 6.2 = 108.5 (second 
product). 

76.5 + 108.5 = 186.0= End Area. 

Now to further illustrate : Take first end area = 185 
square feet as gotten above, and take the next end area 
= 200 square feet, and take the distance between these 
end areas as 100 feet (usual distance between stations on 
R. R. work). 

Now by Rule 2 : — 

185 + 200 = 385, 385 -^ 2 = 192.5 (average area). 

192.5 X 100=19,250, 19,250^27 = 712.96 cubic yards. 

The prismoidal formula is sometimes used. 

By this rule to get volume. Take first end area, plus 
four times the mean (not average) area plus second 
end area, divide product by 6. Then multiply by the 
distance between the first and second end areas and 
divide by 27. In perfectly level earth work or in masonry 
work this rule gives more precise results than the regular 
rule first given. But owing to irregularities of surface, 
etc., in average railroad or canal work it is extremely 
doubtful whether the results are more accurate than the 
above, in fact, the writer is inclined to think that the 
rule of average areas is the more accurate on general 
public works. 



CEMENT, LIME MORTAR, CON= 
CRETE, AND PLASTER. 



CEMENT MORTAR. 



A barrel of American Hydraulic Cement weighs on an 
average 300 pounds net, and contains 3.6 cubic feet. 
Trautwine gives tlie following: "A barrel of cement, 
300 pounds, and 2 barrels of sand mixed with about half 
a barrel of water will make 8 cubic feet of mortar, suffi- 
cient for 

192 sq. ft. of mortar-joint i inch thick == 21^ sq. yards. 

288 ^' " " i " =32 " 

384 '' "• '' i " =42i '' 

768 " " " i " = 854 '' 

or to lay 1 cubic yard, or 522 bricks 8i by 4 by 2 inches 
with joints f inch thick; or a cubic yard of roughly 
scabbled rubble stone work. The quantity of sand may 
be increased, however, to 3 or 4 measures for ordinary 
work." 

In all mortar use clean sharp sand, the finer the sand 
the less the strength. 

The finer cements are ground the better. As a general 
rule cements set and harden better in water than in air, 
especially in warm weather. Cement takes anywhere 
from three minutes to eight hours to set, according to 
grade and quality; slow setting is not a sign of inferiority. 
^^ Setting^'' does not imply any great hardening, but 
merely that the mortar has changed its plastic condition 
to one of brittleness. 

LIME MORTAR. 

(Trautwine.) 

One measure of quicklime to five of sand, when prop- 
erly mixed with clean water, equal a quantity of mortar 
about one- eighth in excess of the dry loose sand alone, 
used in the mortar. 

Quantity required, 20 cubic feet or 16 struck bushels 
of sand, and 4 cubic feet or 3.2 struck bushels of quick- 
lime, the measures slightly shaken in both cases, will 
make about 22^ cubic feet of mortar; sufficient to lay 
1,000 bricks of the ordinary average size of 8i by 4 by 2 
inches with the coarse mortar joints usual in interior 

(44) 



CEMENT, LIME MORTAR, CONCRETE, PLASTER. 45 

house walls, varying, say, from | to i inch. With such 
joints, 1,000 such bricks make 2 cubic yards of massive 
work. 

For face walls, finer work and whiter joints, mix in 
proportions 1 to 4 or 1 to 3. 

Lime is usually sold in lump by the barrel, of about 
230 pounds net, or 250 pounds gross. 

A heaped bushel of lump lime averages about 75 
pounds. Ground quicklime, loose, averages about 70 
pounds per struck bushel; and 3 bushels loose just fill a 
common flour barrel. 

Brickdust or burnt clay improves common mortar, and 
makes it hydraulic. 

In localities where sand cannot be obtained, burnt 
clay, ground, may be substituted with good results. 

The average weight of common hardened mortar is 
about 105 to 115 pounds per cubic foot. 

CONCRETE. 

A strong concrete can be made in following proportions 
(by measure): — 

1. Cement (any standard American brand). 

2. Sand. 

4. Broken stone (of size to pass through a 3 inch-ring). 

Directions for mixing. — Mix sand and cement thor- 
oughly dry, then barely wet, making a stiff mortar. Wet 
the broken stone before putting it in the mortar, a bucket 
or two of water to a barrel of stone; do not get the stone 
"dripping" wet. Mix broken stone into the mortar, 
and turn at least three times thoroughly over with shovel 
and hoe. 

Lay concrete in six-inch layers, and ram each layer 
until water appears on top surface. 

Concrete cannot be rammed under water, but should 
be raked level on top. 

To deposit concrete under water, a Y shaped box is 
used, which may be made large enough to hold a cubic 
yard if necessary, although a smaller box is more easily 
handled. One side is made movable and swings out dis- 
charging load when the box is lowered to the bottom of 
the water, and a trigger is released by a string attached 
for the purpose. This box can be handled with a derrick. 
In depositing concrete under water, the area to be cov- 
ered by concrete must be surrounded by a coffer-dam or 
some similar contrivance, to keep concrete from spread- 
ing. This surrounding fence or barrier must be firmly 
strengthened on the outside to prevent bulging as con- 
crete is being laid. 

The concrete sub-foundation in masony structures 
should extend 2 to 5 feet beyond regular foundation on 



46 CEMENT, LIME MORTAR, CONCRETE, PLASTER. 

all sides, thus distributing load over a greater area, and 
increasing stability of the structure. 

Bags filled with concrete may be used to advantage 
under v^ater in some cases. 

Concrete is very useful for leveling irregular founda- 
tions, and for foundations on a soft bottom, as the entire 
mass when set acts as a monolith. The proportion of 
stone to cement is sometimes made 6 to 1, and gravel is 
also sometimes added to concrete to fill in interstices be- 
tween stones. Slow setting cements are best for con- 
crete. Weight of good concrete 130 to 160 pounds per 
cubic foot, dry. 

We add some few extracts from ''Limes, Hydraulic 
Cements and Mortars" by Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, 
our most reliable authority. 

Mortar used at Forts Richmond and Tomkins, N. Y, H., 
for masonry and concrete : 

1 cask cement (308 pounds, net) =3.70 to 3.75 cubic 
feet stiff paste. 

3 casks loose sand = 12 cubic feet, which gave 11.75 
cubic feet mortar (rather thin). 

At Fort Warren^ Mass. : 

Mortar for Stone Masonry. 

1 cask cement (325 pounds, net) = 3.85 cubic feet paste. 
^ cask lime =4 cubic feet. 

14.67 cubic feet sand, which gave 18^ cubic feet of 
mortar. 

Mortar for Brick Masonry. 

1 cask cement. 

i cask lime. 

12 cubic feet sand, which gave 16 cubic feet of mortar. 

Most American cements will sustain, without any great 
loss of strength, a dose of lime paste equal to that 
of the cement paste, while a dose equal to i to f the 
volume of cement paste may be safely added to any 
energetic Rosendale Cement. 

The advantages gained by addition of lime to cement 
mortar are slowness in setting, and cheapness. 

Pointing Mortar: — 

2^ to 2f sand / ^^ 

Mix the mortar very stiff and not over two or three 
pints at a time. Clean out and enlarge joint if neces- 
sary. Before pointing, wall should be thoroughly satu- 
rated with water and kept in such a condition that it will 
neither take nor give water. Walls should not be allowed 
to dry too soon after pointing, but kept moist for several 
days. Caulk well into joint with caulking iron; when 
joint is full it should be rubbed and polished. 



1 cement , ,, 

" measure. 



CEMENT, LIME MORTAK, CONCRETE, PLASTER. 47 



Kind of Masonry. 



TABLE 

Showing Volume of Mortar per Cubic Yard Required. 

<u .-J 

«M i-i 22 <u 

+^ a),2.o 
V-> ^3 
03 C O"^ 

1.22 
.92 



Rough Masonry in rubble stone, ) 

from 4 to 3^0 cubic feet in volume, ( 

Ordinary Masonry in blocks, large ) 

and small not in courses, joints / 

rough hammer dressed, ) 

Masonry in large masses, headers 1 

and stretchers dovetailed, as or- 1 

dinarily used for facing sea- ^ 

walls, ^ood hammer dressed beds 

and joints kept full. 

Ordinary Masonry in courses of 

20 in. to 30 in. rise. 
Ordinary Masonry in courses of ) 
12 in. to 20 in. rise, j 

Brick Masonry, 

Concrete (the volume of voids in 
coarse fragments being about .30) 
Of good quality. 
Of medium quality, . 
Of inferior quality, . 



Volume of 

Mortar in Cubic 

Feet. 


Quantity of 
Lime required if 

no Cement is 
used, in barrels. 


10.8 


.565 


8.1 


.423 


1.0 


.05 


1.5 


.08 


2.0 


.105 


8.0 


.42 


11.0 


.54 


9.0 


.41 


8.0 


.37 



.11 



.17 

.22 
.90 



1.75 

1.06 

.97 



Kidder gives following Memoranda for Plas- 
terers: — "One hundred yards of plastering will re- 
quire fourteen hundred laths, four bushels and a half of 
lime, four-fifths of a cubic yard of sand, nine pounds of 
hair, and five pounds of nails for two-coat work. 

Three men and one helper will put on four hundred 
and fifty yards in a day's work of two- coat work, and will 
put on a hard finish for three hundred yards. 

A load of mortar measures one cubic yard, requires 
one cubic yard of sand and nine bushels of lime, and will 
fill thirty hods. A bushel of hair weighs, when dry, 
about fifteen pounds." 

John Roebling's Sons Co., of Trenton, N". J., manu- 
facture a wire lathing for which following advantages 
are claimed: — 

(a.) The cost of insurance lowered. 

(6.) The liability of destruction by fire lessened. 

(c.) The beauty of a ceiling free from unsightly 
cracks. 

Laths. — A plain lath is IJ inches wide by i inch thick. 

100 laths 5 feet long equal 1 bundle. 

1 bundle of laths ) -n ^ ^^-^i , ^« 

500 3-peniiy nails [ ^^^ "^^'^'^ ^ superficial yards. 



MASONRY. 



FOUNDATIONS. 

Kidder gives the following as permissible loads upon 
various kinds of foundation beds, per square foot. 

Kock foundations 4,000 to 40,000 lbs. , average 20,000 lbs. 
Coarse gravel and sand . . . 2,500 to 3,500 " 

Clay 4,000 '' 

Concrete ...... 8,000 '' 

Piles in artificial soil, for each pile, 4,000 '' 

Piles in firm soil, for each pile, 30,000 to 140,000 '' 

FOOTING COURSES. 

Footing courses are the bottom courses in masonry; 
they are generally built to extend beyond the face of the 
wall and to cover a greater area tlian the base of the 
regular wall. 

Footing courses distribute the weight of a structure 
over a greater area, thus diminishing liability of settle- 
ment and increasing stability. 

Always use the largest stones in the footing courses ; 
they should be laid upon their natural beds and well 
bonded into the wall so as to avoid the possibility of 
shearing off that portion of the footing course which 
projects beyond the face of the wall ; also care should be 
observed to ksep all joints in this projecting portion of 
the footing courses, especially in brick work, as far as 
possible back of face of wall. 

Stones used in footing courses should be at least eight 
inches thick and two or three feet on other dimensions. 

Footing courses should extend, at the bottom, at least 
twelve inches beyond the face of the wall. 

After carefully looking over the subject, we have come 
to the conclusion that the following table taken from 
^'Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book" — Kidder, 
gives most reliable results on the important subject of 
"Strength of Masonry," i. e.. Ultimate Crushing Load, 
which we reprint below. 

(48) 



MASONRY. 



49 



AVERAGE ULTIMATE CRUSHING LOAD 
IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH, FOR 
STONES, MORTARS AND CEMENTS. 



Stones, Etc. 



Brick, common (Eastern) .... 

Brick, best pressed 

Brick (Trautwine) . . . . . . 

Brickwork, ordinary 

Brickwork, good in cement .... 
Brickw^ork, first-class in cement . 
Concrete (1 part lime, 3 parts gravel, 3 

weeks old) 

Lime mortar, common 

Portland cement, best English : 

Pure, three months old .... 

Pure, nine months old 

1 part sand, 1 part cement : 

Three months old 

Nine months old 

Granites, 7,750 to 22,750 

Blue granite. Fox Island, Me. 
Blue granite, Staten Island, N. Y. 
Gray granite. Stony Creek, Conn. 
North River (N. Y.) flagging .... 
Limestones, 11,000 to 25,000 .... 
Limestones, from Glen Falls, N. Y. 
Lake limestone. Lake Champlain, N. Y. 
White limestone, Marblehead, O. . 
White Limestone, from Joliet, 111. 
Marbles : 

From East Chester, N. Y. . 

Common Italian 

Vermont (Sutherland Falls Co.) . 

Vermont, Dorset, Vt 

Drab, North Bay Quarry, Wis. . 
Sandstones ........ 

Brown, Little Falls, N. Y 

Brown, Middletown, Conn 

Red, Haverstraw, N. Y 

Red-brown Seneca freestone, Ohio [Md(?)] . 

Freestone, Dorchester, N. B 

Longmeadow^ Sandstone, from Springfield, 

Mass. 



Crushing Weight 

in Pounds Per 

Square Inch. 



10,000 

12,000 

770 to 4,060 

300 to 500 

450 to 1,000 

930 

620 
770 

3,760 
5,960 

2,480 
4,520 
12,000 
14,875 
22,250 
15,750 
13,425 
12,000 
11,475 
25,000 
11,225 
12,775 

12,950 

11,250 

10,750 

7,612 

20,025 

6,000 

9,850 

6,950 

4,350 

9,687 

9,150 

8,000 to 14,000 



The stones in table are supposed to be on bed, and the 
height to be not more than four times the least side. 

Rankine gives " the resistance of good coursed rubble 
masonry to crushing is about four-tenths of that of single 
blocks of the stone it is built with. The resistance of 
common rubble to crushing is not much greater than that 
of the mortar which it contains." 

Stones generally begin to crack or split under about 
one-half their ultimate crushing load. 



50 



MASOKRY. 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS OF STONES AKB 
ALLIED BUILDING MATERIALS. 



Description. 



Alabaster, falsely so-called, but really marbles 
" real ; a compact white plaster of Paris 

Asphaltum . 

Basalt . . . . . . . i-L • 

Bath Stone, Oolite ....?.. 

Cement, Rosendale, ground loose .... 

Louisville " " . . . . 

" Copley " " . . . . 

Portland " " . . . . 

Class, thick flooring 

Cranite . 

Cneiss, common 

" in loose piles 

Gypsum, Plaster of Paris . . . . 

" in irregular lumps 

" ground loose 

Greenstone, trap 

" " quarried in loose piles 

Hornblende, black . . . . 
Limestones and Marbles, ordinary, about . 

" " " quarried in irregular' 

fragments, 1 cubic yard solid, makes about 1.9 
cubic yards perfectly loose ; or about If cubic 
yards piled. In this last case .571 of the pile is 
solid, and the remaining .429 part of it is voids 

.... piled 

Lime, quick, of ordinary limestones and marbles 
" " in small irregular lumps, or ground ) 

loose ] 

Lime, quick, ground, well shaken .... 
" " thoroughly shaken .... 

Masonry, of granite or limestones, well-dressed 

throughout 

Masonry, of granite, well scabbled mortar rub- 
ble. About k the mass will be mortar 
Masonry, of granite, well scabbled dry rubble 
Masonry, of granite, roughly scabbled mortar 

rubble, about i to h part will be mortar . 
Masonry, of granite, roughly scabbled dry rubble 
Masonry, of sandstone, about J part less than 

the foregoing. 
Masonry, of brickwork, pressed, fine joints . 
" " " medium quality 

" ** " coarse, inferior soft brick 

Mortar, hardened 

Quartz, common pure 

Sandstones, fit for building, dry .... 

Serpentines, good • 

Shales, red or black . . . • . 

Slate 

Trap, compact 

" quarried in piles 

-Water, pure rain or distilled, at 62'' Fahrenheit 



Average 
Weight of a 
Cubit Foot 
in lbs. 



168 
144 

87.3 
181 
131 

56 

49.6 

53.6 

90.0 
158 
170 
168 

96 
141.6 

82 

56 
187 
107 
203 
168 



96 



95 

53 

64 
75 

165 

154 

138 
150 
125 



140 
125 
100 
103 
165 
151 
162 
162 
175 
187 
107 
62.36 



MASONRY. 



51 



WORKING STRENGTH OF MASONRY. 

The working strength of masonry is generally taken 
at from one-sixth to one-tenth of the crushing load for 
piers, columns, etc., and in the case of arches a factor of 
safety of twenty is often recommended for computing 
the resistance of the voussoirs (ringstones) to crushing. 

Trautwine states that even first-class pressed brick- 
work in cement should not be exposed to more than 
thirteen or sixteen tons' pressure per square foot, or 
good hand-moulded brick to more than two-thirds as 
much. 

RULES FOR PROPORTIONING MASONRY. 

Ketaij^ing Walls and Abutments. — The only prac- 
tical rules are gained from experience and practice. The 
following table by John C. Trautwine, C.E., is a fair aver- 
age of first-class practice, sand or earth backing: 

Propoetions of Retaining Walls. 



Total Height of 


Wall of Cut Stone 


Good Mortar 


Wall of Good Dry 


Earth Compared 


in Mortar. 


Rubble or Brick. 


Rubble. 


with the Height 








of the Wall 
Above Ground. 


Thickness 


at Base, in part of the Height. 


1 


.35 


.40 


. .50 


1.1 


.42 


.47 


.57 


1.2 


.46 


.51 


.61 


1.3 


.49 


.54 


.64 


1.4 


.51 


.56 


.66 


1.5 


.52 


.57 


.67 


1.6 


.54 


.59 


.69 


1.7 


.55 


.60 


.70 


1.8 


.56 


.61 


.71 


2 


.58 


.63 


.73 


2.5 


• .60 


.65 


.75 


3 


.62 


.67 


.77 


4 


.63 


.68 


.78 


6 


.64 


.69 


.79 



In above table, the first case, where height of earth 
(embankment) equal height of wall, corresponds to the 
case of an abutment. 

In railway abutments, where the wall has to resist a 
thrust induced by the approaching train, it is well to 
slightly increase the above to 

. 40 height for width at base of cut stone in mortar. 

.45 height for width at base of good rubble in mortar. - 

.55 height for width at base of good rubble laid dry. 

The above table is for vertical walls, but they may be 
battered to any extent not exceeding 1^ inches to a foot, 
or 1 in 8, without sensibly affecting their stability, with- 
out increasing the base. 



62 MASONRY. 

The above table answers very well for any ordinary 
filling material when deposited from cars and carts as in 
railroad construction. 

When fill is composed of a mixture of sand or earth, 
with a large proportion of round boulders^ it weighs con- 
siderably more than material ordinarily used for backing, 
and will exert a greater pressure against the wall; the 
thickness of which should be increased, say about one- 
eighth to one-sixth part over table when such backing is 
used. The wall is stronger when courses of masonry are 
laid with an inclination inward. 

All backing should be well consolidated against back 
of wall, as any movement of backing material, however 
slight, exerts an enormous overturning force. 

When backing material is saturated with water, small 
holes or drains should be left through wall to. allow such 
water to drain off. 

After calculating a vertical wall as per above table, a 
more stable wall may be gotten by making offsets on the 
back of wall by increasing the thickness of the wall at 
the base and decreasing thickness at the top; in this 
change in design, the same area of section of wall should 
be kept as that gotten by use of table. The change 
being, that instead of a rectangular section, we have one 
with the top of the wall thinner than the base. 

In practice it is not well to make a wall of this class 
less than two feet thick at the top. 

Another method of designing a wall is to assume a top 
thickness, say two feet, and then as you descend keep 
the tliickness a certain proportion of the height of the 
wall, say .40 for cut stone work (second-class masonry). 

When a wall is built, before any pressure is brought 
against it, care should be taken to fill all the space left 
between foundation masonry and sides of foundation pit 
— otherwise the wall acts as one of a height equal to the 
distance from top of wall to bottom of foundation pit in- 
stead of from top of wall to natural surface of the ground^ 
as designed. 

Piers. — In practice all that is necessary in pier work 
is to design the top of the pier of a size to receive 
bridge, and then let the sides have a proper batter, say 
one-lialf inch to the foot for cut stone work. 

Akciies. — Depth of ring — Ellet's Rule. Very satisfac- 
tory. Depth of ring in feet, equal three-eighths of the 
square root of the span of the arch in feet. 

Trautwine' s Rule. 



Depth of Key = ^Radius + half span -f .2 foot, 
in feet 4 

This rule gives depth for first-class cut stone arches, 
whether circular or elliptic. 



MASONRY. 



63 



For second-class work this depth may be increased one- 
eighth part. 

For h7Hck or fair rubble^ increase one- third part. 

Table, — Depth of keystones (ring) for arches of first- 
class cut stone by above rule (Trautwine). 



Span 






Rise, in Parts of 


THE Span 






Feet. 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




2 


^ 


^ 


z 


^ 


"g" 


TIT 




Key ft. 


Key ft. 


Key ft. 


Key ft. 


Key ft. 


Key ft. 


Key ft. 


4 


.70 


.72 


.74 


.76 


.•79 


.83 


.88 


6 


.81 


.83 


.86 


.89 


.92 


.97 


1.03 


8 


.91 


.93 


.96 


1.00 


1.03 


1.09 


1.16 


10 


.99 


1.01 


1.04 


1.07 


1.11 


1.18 


1.26 


15 


1.17 


1.19 


1.22 


1.26 


1.30 


1.40 


1.50 


20 


1.32 


1.35 


1.38 


1.43 


1.48 


1.59 


1.70 


25 


1.45 


1.48 


1.53 


1.58 


1.64 


1.76 


1.88 


30 


1.57 


1.60 


1.65 


1.71 


1.78 


1.91 


2.04 


35 


1.68 


1.70 


1.76 


1.83 


1.90 


2.04 


2.19 


40 


1.78 


1.81 


1.88 


1.95 


2.03 


2.18 


2.33 


50 


1.97 


2.00 


2.08 


2.16 


2.25 


2.41 


2.58 



1 



Rule. — For thickness 
line (Trautwine). 

Thickness of abut- 
ment at springing 
line when the height 
does not exceed 
times the base. 



H 



i 



of arch abutment at springing 



Badius in ft , rise in ft. 



+ 



lO + 2 ft. 



If of rough rubble add six inches to insure full thick- 
ness in every part. This wall can be built with face 
plumb, and back with batter three inches to one foot. 

Flat arches cheaper than semi-circular for equal water- 
way, as water-way can only be calculated as extending 
to the springing line. And the abutments, not the sheath- 
ing (ring) takes larger percentage of the masonry. 

Centkes for Arches. — The question of removing 
centres is a much mooted one. 

Trautwine advises that centres be allowed to remain 
three or four months after the arch is finished, to allow 
mortar to harden to prevent undue compression and conse- 
quent settlement. As this opinion is based on his long pro- 
fessional career and careful observation, the writer with 
diffidence advances a diametrically opposite theory as 
the results of his observation, very limited when com- 
pared with Mr. Trautwine' s. Centres should be slowly 
slacked, say one-half inch about three days after arch is 
keyed, so as to allow settlement before mortar entirely 
hardens, otherwise unequal settlement loill cause cracks. 

After, say a week longer, if the arch ring has settled 
upon the wooden sheeting over centres, ease another half- 



64 MASONRY. 

inch ; and a half-inch thereafter for each week until set- 
tlement stops. 

Fifty foot arches have been known to settle three 
inches without in any way impairing their stability, but 
great care should be taken to so proportion foundation 
that very little settlement will occur; it is nearly impos- 
sible to avoid some small settlement of masonry in an 
arch, especially when not built of first-class cut stone. 

Build all masonry to last for an unlimited time^ the best 
is the cheapest, 

FOUNDATIONS FOR MACHINERY. 

All machinery works better and has a much longer 
life by having suitable and solid foundations. Founda- 
tions for machinery are best of stone, brick or concrete. 

If these are not at hand a fair foundation can be bulk 
of squared timbers framed together, forming cribs and 
filled with gravel, clay or sand firmly tamped. Bolt bed- 
plates to the timbers. 

In fact bed-plates should be well bolted into any foun- 
dation. 



BRICKS. 



Brick work is generally measured by the thousand 
bricks laid in wall, and sometimes by the cubic foot. 

In measuring brick work it is customary to deduct large 
openings, such as spaces for doors, windows and arches, 
but not for small openings, such as flues, etc., as the 
extra work necessary to finish these openings takes as 
much time as it would to build a solid wall. 

In engineering works of magnitude brick work is 
measured by the cubic yard, solid measurement. 

There are different methods of computing measure- 
ment of bricks in a given wall. One is to find the num- 
ber of bricks in a cubic foot of finished work, and multi- 
ply this by the number of cubic feet in the given work; 
this is a very good method, but the more common method 
among masons is to compute the superficial area of wall, 
and multiply by the number of bricks in a square foot 
for walls of given thickness. 

In the Middle and Western States with average 
mortar joints the following gives number of bricks per 
square foot for different thicknesses of wall : — 

4^-inch wall or ^ brick in thickness, 7 bricks per super- 
ficial foot. 

9-inch wall or 1 brick in thickness, 14 bricks per super- 
ficial foot. 

13-inch wall or li bricks in thickness, 21 bricks per su- 
perficial foot. 

18-inch wall or 2 bricks in thickness, 28 bricks per 
superficial foot. 

22-inch wall or 2^ bricks in thickness, 35 bricks per 
superficial foot. 

In Eastern States bricks are smaller, therefore : — 

4-inch wall or i brick in thickness, 7i bricks per su- 
perficial foot. 

8-inch wall or 1 brick in thickness, 15 bricks per super- 
ficial foot. 

12-inch wall or 1^ bricks in thickness, 22^ bricks per 
superficial foot. 

16-inch wall or 2 bricks in thickness, 30 bricks per 
superficial foot. 

20-inch wall or 2^ bricks in thickness, 37i bricks per 
superficial foot. 

24-inch wall or 3 bricks in thickness, 45 bricks per 
superficial foot. 

(55) 



56 



BRICKS. 



TABLE TO FIND NUMBER OF BRICKS IN 

A WALL. 

(Kidder.) 

Applicable to Eastern States ; for Western States, reduce 

by one-fifteenth. 



Superficial 




Number of Bricks to Thickness of 




ITfiET OF 














Wall. 


4 in. 


8 in. 


12 in. 


16 in. 


20 in. 


24 in. 


1 


8 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


2 


15 


30 


45 


60 


75 


90 


3 


23 


45 


68 


90 


113 


135 


4 


30 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 


5 


38 


75 


113 


150 


188 


225 


6 


45 


90 


135 


180 


225 


270 


7 


53 


105 


158 


210 


263 


315 


8 


60 


120 


180 


240 


300 


360 


9 


68 


135 


203 


270 


338 


405 


10 


75 


150 


225 


300 


375 


450 


20 


150 


300 


450 


600 


750 


900 


30 


225 


450 


675 


900 


1,125 


1,350 


40 


300 


600 


900 


1,200 


1,500 


1,800 


50 


375 


750 


1,125 


1,500 


1,875 


2,250 


60 


450 


900 


1,350 


1,800 


2,250 


2,700 


70 


525 


1,050 


1,575 


2,100 


2,625 


3,150 


80 


600 


1,200 


1,800 


2,400 


3,000 


3,600 


90 


675 


1,350 


2,025 


2,700 


3,375 


4,050 


100 


750 


1,500 


2,250 


3,000 


3,750 


4,500 


200 


1,500 


3,000 


4,500 


6,000 


7,500 


9,000 


300 


2,250 


4,500 


6,750 


9,000 


11,250 


13,500 


400 


3,000 


6,000 


9,000 


12,000 


15,000 


18,000 


500 


3,750 


7,500 


11,250 


15,000 


18,750 


22,500 


600 


4,500 


9,000 


13,500 


18,000 


22,500 


27,000 


700 


5,250 


10,500 


15,750 


21,000 


26,250 


31,500 


800 


6,000 


12,000 


18,000 


24,000 


30,000 


36,000 


900 


6,750 


13,500 


20,250 


27,000 


33,750 


40,500 


1,000 


7,500 


15,000 


22,500 


30,000 


37,500 


45,000 


2,000 


15,000 


30,000 


45,000 


60,000 


75,000 


90,000 


3.000 


22,500 


45,000 


67,500 


90,000 


112,500 


135,000 


4,000 


30,000 


60,000 


90,000 


120,000 


150,000 


180,000 


5,000 


37,500 


75,000 


112,500 


150,000 


187,500 


225,000 


6,000 


45,000 


90,000 


135,000 


180,000 


225,000 


270,000 


7,000 


52,500 


105,000 


157,500 


210,000 


262,500 


315,000 


8,000 


60,000 


120,000 


180,000 


240,000 


300,000 


360,000 


9,000 


67,500 


135,000 


202,500 


270,000 


337,500 


405,000 


10,000 


75,000 


150,000 


225,000 


300,000" 


375,000 


450,000 



Application of Table. — How many bricks will 
there be in 9,846 superficial feet of wall 16 inches thick? 

Answer. — In 9,000 square feet there are 270,000 bricks. 
'* 800 '' " 24,000 " 

a 40 " *' 1,200 *' 

U Q U U 130 ^t 



In 9,840 square feet there are 295,380 bricks. 



BRICKS. 



57 



MEMORANDA FOR BRICKLAYERS. 

(Kidder,) 

To make one cubic yard of mortar, requires one cubic 
yard of sand and nine bushels of lime, and will fill thirty 
hods. 

A bricklayer's hod, measuring 1 foot 4 inches by 9 
inches by 9 inches, equals 1,296 cubic inches in capacity, 
and contains twenty bricks. 

A single load of sand and other material equal one 
cubic yard, or twenty-seven cubic feet; and a double 
load equals twice that quantity. Quantity in a load 
should be specified when buying. 

A measure of lime is one cubic yard. 

One thousand bricks closely stacked occupy about fifty- 
six cubic feet. 

One thousand old bricks, cleaned and loosely stacked, 
occupy about seventy-two cubic feet. 

One superficial foot of gauged arches requires ten 
bricks. 

One superficial foot of facings requires seven bricks. 

One yard of paving requires thirty-six stock bricks laid 
flat, or fifty-two on edge, and thirty-six paving bricks laid 
flat, or eighty-two on edge. The bricks of different 
makers vary in dimensions, and those of the same maker 
vary also, owing to the different degrees of heat to which 
they are subjected in burning. The memoranda given 
above for brick work are therefore only approximate. 

The following table gives the usual dimensions of the 
bricks in various parts of the country : — 



Descriptiot^. 



Baltimore Front ] 
Philadelphia Front I 
Wilmington Front ( 
Trenton Front . J 

Croton 

Colabaugh . . . 



Inches. 



8^X44X21 
8|X4 X2i 

O^XogX^g 



Description. 



Maine . . . 
Milwaukee . 
North River 
Trenton . . 

Ordinary . . 



Inches. 



74X3|X2i 
8^X44X2f 
8""X34X2| 
8 X4 X2J 
7iX3fX2j 
8jX4iX2i 



'Valentine's (Woodbridge, :N'. J.) 8^X41 

V "h • V J X 2^ inches. 

jjire-oricK ^ Downing' s (Allentown, Pa.) 9 X 4i X 2i 
1^ inches. 

The weight of the small sized bricks is about four 
pounds on the average, and of the larger about six 
pounds. 

Dry bricks will absorb about one-fifteenth of their 
weight in water. 

All bricks should be wet before laying, especially in 
dry weather, as otherwise they take water from the 



58 BRICKS, 

mortar and thus reduce its strength — do not have bricks 
" dripping wet, " but allow them to take all the water 
they will; this is especially necessary where cement mor- 
tar is used. 

Laying Per Day. — Trautwine gives, one bricklayer 
and one helper will lay in common house walls on an 
average about 1,500 bricks per day of ten working 
hours. In neater face work of back buildings from 1,000 
to 1,200; in good ordinary street fronts, 800 to 1,000; 
finest lower story faces, 150 to 300. In plain massive 
engineering work, he should average about 2,000 per 
day, or 4 cubic yards ; and in large arches about 1,500, 
or 3 cubic yards. 

In Philadelphia, a barrel of lump lime (230 pounds 
net) is allowed for 1,000 bricks. Trautwine gives 20 
cubic feet, or 16 struck bushels of sand and 4 cubic feet, 
or 3.2 struck bushels of quick-lime, the measures slightly 
shaken in both cases, will make about 22|^ cubic feet of 
mortar, sufficient to lay 1,000 bricks. 

WEIGHTS. 



Description. 



Brick, best pressed 
Brick, common hard 
Brick, soft .... 
Brick, fire .... 
Brickwork, common 
Brick work, pressed 
Mortar, hardened . 



Average Weight 

in lbs. 
per Cubic Foot. 



150 
125 
100 
137 
112 
140 
103 



For ultimate crushing strength see " Masonry." 

GENERAL RULES FOR BRICK CHIMNEYS. 

{From MolesworW s ^^ Pocket Book.''^) 

The diameter at the base should be not less than one- 
tenth of the height. 

Batter of chimneys, 0.3 inch to the foot. 

Thickness of brickwork, a brick from top to twenty- 
five feet from ditto. A brick and a half from twenty-five 
to fifty feet from the top, increasing by half a brick for 
each twenty- five feet from the top. 

If the inside diameter at the top exceeds four feet six 
inches the top length should be a brick and a half thick. 



BRICKS. 



69 



TABLE SHOWING DIAMETER 
HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY FOR 

BOILER. 

(From '^ The Builder.'') 



AND 

ANY 



Horse- 
Power of 
Boiler. 


Height of 

Chimney 

in Feet. 


Interior 

Diameter 

at top. 


Horse- 
. Power of 
Boiler. 


Height of 
Chimney 
in Feet. 


Interior 

Diameter 

at Top. 


10 


60 


14 inches. 


70 


120 


30 inches. 


12 


75 


14 


90 


120 


34 " 


16 


90 


16 " 


120 


135 


38 " 


20 


99 


17 


160 


150 


43 " 


30 


105 


21 


200 


165 


47 " 


50 


120 


26 " 


250 


180 


52 " 


60 


120 


27 


380 


195 


57 " 



BOILERS AND HORSE=POWER. 



BOILERS. 



Boilers are either horizontal or vertical. The general 
parts of a boiler are shelly or outer covering, furnace^ or 
fire box, hack connection tubes, man and hand holes. 

The shell is made of open hearth steel, or wrought 
iron. Boiler plate iron for shells is made to stand bend- 
ing cold with the grain into cylinders radii, say of one or 
two feet. General size of plates y^ inch and heavier; and 
from 2 to 5 feet wide, and from 4 to 12 feet long. Plates 
are either with or without flanges. Flanging is done by 
hydraulic pressure; after flanging, the plate is put in 
annealing furnace to releive and tension of metal. 

The average ultimate tensile or cohesive* strength of 
rolled wrought iron plates for boilers, etc., is taken at 
40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch — average 50,000 
pounds per square inch. The average ultimate tensile 
strength of steel is about twice that of wrought iron. 

In comparing steel and wrought iron boiler plate — 
steel boiler plate with drilled rivet holes can be used 20 
per cent, lighter than wrought iron plates with punched 
holes, for boilers of equal pressure. 

Double riveted boilers are about 1.25 times as strong as 
single riveted. Hence they may be one- fifth thinner. 
Lap-welded boilers are nearly 1.8 times as strong as 
single riveted; and hence may be only .56 as thick. 

The joints in boilers are riveted either by hand or ma- 
chinery — more uniformly by machinery when it can be 
done. The joints are caulked by battering with regular 
caulking tools — somewhat smaller than ship caulking 
tools, or by pneumatic machinery. No filling is used in 
caulking a boiler, the edge simply taking hold like a toe. 

In testing boilers hydraulic pressure is applied, about 
50 per cent, greater than steam pressure to be used. 

Furnace or fire-box, of which grate is the bottom 
and crown sheet the top. 

The area of grate surface governs H. P. of boiler. 
On one square foot of grate can be burned on an average 
from 10 to 12 pounds of hard coal, or 18 to 20 pounds 
soft coal per hour with natural draft. With forced 
drafts nearly double these amounts can be burned. 

The best design of boiler, well set, with good draft 
and skilful firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 pounds of 
water per pound of first-class coal. 

(60) 



BOILERS AND HORSE-POWER. 



61 



The crown sheet is firmly bolted and braced to shell 
and end of boiler. Grate bars are of cast iron. 

Back Connection is where the fire is turned from the 
furnace into the tubes. The fire passes from furnace 
under boiler into back connection, where it is turned 
through the tubes and thence by stack into atmosphere. 
These remarks apply to the horizontal return tubular 
boiler, which is now coming into general use, as it gets 
more work out of the fuel than the regular tubular 
boiler. The regular tubular boiler is without back con- 
nection, the fire passing directly from the furnace into 
the front end of the tubes and reaching the stack at the 
back end of the boiler. The stack of the horizontal re- 
turn tubular boiler being at the front end of boiler. 

Tubes. — The tubes in a boiler are surrounded by water 
— the water getting heat from the tubes. The area of 
heating surface of the tubes also governs the horse- 
power of boiler. The heating surface of the tubes taken 
together with size of grate fixes the H. P. 

In calculating horse-power of tubular or flue boilers, 
consider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to 
one nominal horse-power. 

Dimensions, weights and list price of standard sizes of 
lap- welded wrought iron boiler tubes, in lengths up to 20 
feet. Other sizes and lengths made to order, at extra 
prices. List-prices subject to trade discount. Discount 
about 40 to 45 per cent.. 

TABLE. 

(Allison Mfg. Co., S2d and Walnut Sts. Philadelphia.) 



Outer 


Thickness. 


Wt. 


Price 


Outer 


Thickness. 


Weight 


Price 


Diam. 

Inches. 


Ills. 


B gm 
W.ga. 


per 
Foot. 


per 
Foot. 


Diam. 
Indies. 


Ins. 


Bgm 
W.ga. 


per 
Foot. 


per 
Foot. 


1 


.072 


15 


.70 


.23 


^ 


.134 


10 


6.17 


.60 


li 


.072 


15 


.90 


.23 


5 


.148 


9 


7.58 


.72 


H 


.083 


14 


1.24 


.23 


6 


.165 


8 


10.16 


$1.00 


11 


.095 


13 


1.66 


.22 


7 


.165 


8 


11.90 


1.45 


2 


.095 


13 


1.91 


.22 


8 


.165 


8 


13.65 


1.85 


n 


.095 


13 


2.16 


.25 


9 


.180 


7 


16.76 


2.25 


2^ 


.109 


12 


2.75 


.28 


10 


.203 


6 


21.00 


2.75 


2a 


.109 


12 


3.04 


.31 


11 


.220 


5 


25.00 


3.25 


3 


.109 


12 


3.33 


.34 


12 


.229 


4^ 


28.50 


3.55 


3i 


.120 


11 


3.96 


.38 


13 


.238 


4 


32.06 


4.20 


3* 


.120 


11 


4.28 


.43 


14 


.248 


3^ 


36.00 


4.75 


31 


.120 


11 


4.60 


.45 


15 


.259 


3 


40.60 


5.75 


4 


.134 


10 


5.47 


.52 


16 


.270 


24 


45.20 


6.75 



In ordering boiler tubes, give the outer diameter — lyian 
and hand holes put in to facilitate cleaning of the boiler, 
and making general repairs. 



62 



BOILERS AND HORSE-POWER. 



All boilers braced with regard to the pressure they 
are to sustain. 

Safety valve is to allow steam to escape when pres- 
sure has reached maximum safe limit. Engineer should 
try his safety valves every day^ as when out of use they 
are liable to corrode and set. This setting of safety 
valves is the cause of most boiler explosions. 

TABLE SHOWING SAFE WORKING STEAM 
PRESSURE FOR IRON BOILERS OP 
DIFFERENT SIZES, USING A FACTOR 
OF SAFETY OF SIX. 






36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
46 

48 
50 
52 
54 
60 
66 
72 



c p 

— Vi 

xi o 



INCH. 



_5_ 
16 






IB 



T% 



_5_ 
8 






t 



^ 



Longitudinal Seams 
Single Kiveted. 



Tensile Strength of Iron. 



4.V000 1bs. 50,000 lbs. 55,000 lbs 



Pressure. 



LBS. 



104 

130 
99 

123 
94 

117 
89 

112 
85 

107 
82 

102 
78 
98 

118 
75 
94 

112 
72 
90 

108 
87 

104 

121 
78 
94 

109 
85 
99 

112 
78 
91 

102 



Pressure. 
LBS. 

116 
145 
110 
137 
104 
130 

99 
124 

95 
118 

91 
113 

87 
109 
131 

83 
104 
125 

80 
100 
120 

96 
116 
135 

87 
104 
121 

95 
111 
117 

87 
102 
117 



Pressure. 

LBS. 

127 
159 
121 
151 
115 
143 
109 
136 
104 
130 
100 
125 

96 
120 
144 

92 
115 
138 

88 
110 
132 
106 
127 
148 

95 
115 
134 
104 
121 
138 

96 
112 
128 



Longitudinal Seams 
Double Eiveted. 



Tensile Strength of Iron. 



45,000 lbs. 50,000 lbs. 55 000 lbs. 



Pressure 
LBS. 

125 
156 
119 
148 
113 
140 
107 
134 
102 
128 

98 
122 

94 
118 
142 

90 
113 
134 

86 
108 
130 
101 
120 
140 

94 
113 
131 
102 
120 
137 

94 
110 
125 



Pressure. 



LBS. 



139 
.174 
132 
164 
125 
156 
119 
149 
114 
142 
109 
136 
104 
131 
157 
100 
125 
150 
96 
120 
144 
112 
134 
156 
104 
125 
145 
114 
133 
152 
104 
122 
140 



Pressure. 
LBS. 

152 
191 
145 
181 
138 
172 
131 
163 
125 
156 
120 
150 
115 
144 
173 
110 
138 
166 
106 
132 
158 
122 
148 
172 
114 
138 
160 
125 
146 
167 
115 
134 
153 



BOILERS AND HORSE-POWER. 



63 



The best length for a steam boiler is three times the 
diameter of its shell. 

Each nominal horse-power of boilers requires 1 cubic 
foot of feed water per hour. 

One of the best varnishes for smokestacks or steam- 
pipes is good asphaltum dissolved in oil of turpentine. 

The following examples of thickness of boiler shells, 
together with notes on cleaning and other information 
relative to boilers was kindly given to the writer by Mr. 
Frank Maguigan, of the Harlan and Hollinsworth Co., 
Wilmington, Delaware. The thickness of boiler shell is 
governed by the diameter and pressure : — 



Material. 


Thickness. 


Diam. 


Pressure 

per Square 

inch, lbs. 


Remarks. 


Wrought iron . . 

Open hearth steel 
Wrought iron . . 
Open hearth steel 


3% in. 
Am. 

iin. 
fin. 
J in. • 


Ft. In. 
2-4 

4-8 

8-0 

8-0 

10-0 


90 
100 

125 

125 

160 


( Eivet Holes 
I Drilled. 

j For Triple 
/ Ex. Engine. 



Example of marine boiler in shop, steel shell, 12 feet 
6 inches in diameter, 11 feet 1 inch long, IjV inches 
thick — rivet holes drilled. Steam pressure 160 pounds — 
built for a Triple Expansion Engine Cylinders 16, 26 
and 40 inches ; stroke 22 inches. 



CARE OF BOILERS. 

Blow out the boiler of a stationary engine once a da^j^ 
Blow out the boiler of a marine engine twice a day frorh. 
surface blow. 

The tubes should be swept out once a week. All 
boilers should be blown out thoroughly, and cleaned out 
inside once a month. 

Where water is calcarious, or has mud or other impuri- 
ties in it forming stubborn scales, use one pint of kero- 
sene to a 50 H. P. engine every other day. This oil 
applied through feed by an oil pump mounted on feed 
pipe. Pint cup big enough. 

In blowing out, generally use the surface blow. This 
can be varied occasionally by using the bottom blow 
which thoroughly stirs up any settled sediment. 

The surface blow should be at the surface of the water 
in the boiler, say 9 inches over crown sheet ; have the 
pan or scoop set on water line, by this means all oil or 
other floating matter is gotten rid of. 

It has been stated that the Southwestern K. K. Co., 



64 BOILERS AND HORSE-POWER. 

England, prevents lime deposit in their boilers, along 
their limestone sections, by dissolving one ounce of sal 
ammoniac to 90 gallons of water. Lime forms a very 
hard incrustation at bottom of boilers. The salt of sea- 
water forms similar deposits in boilers, as also does mud 
and other impurities. [For notes on water and steam see 
'' Steam Pumping Machinery."] 

HOW TO ASCERTAIWr HORSE-POWER OF 

BOILERS. 

Standard adopted by American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers, is 30 pounds of water evaporated into dry 
steam per hour from temperature of feed water 100° 
Fahrenheit, into steam of 70 pounds pressure. 

Compound engines will develop a horse-power on 15 
pounds of water. 

Single condensing engine will develop a horse-power 
on 18 to 22 pounds of water. 

Automatic non-condensing engine will develop a horse- 
power on 28 pounds to 32 pounds of water. 

Slide valve throttle-governing engine will develop a 
horse-power on one cubic foot, or 62^ pounds of water. 

HORSE-POWER DEFINITION AND COM- 
PARISON. 

A nominal horse-power^ as used in machinery, is esti- 
mated at 33,000 pounds raised 1 foot in a minute; this 
being ratio assumed by Boulton and Watt in selling their 
engines ; so that purchasers wishing to substitute steam 
for horses should not be disappointed. Their assump- 
tion can be carried out by a very strong horse, day after 
day for eight or ten hours ; but as the engine can work 
day and night for months without stopping, which a 
horse cannot, it is plain that a one-horse engine can do 
more work than any such horse. 

Hence many object to the term horse-power as applied 
to engines; but since everybody understands its plain 
meaning, and such a term is convenient, it is not in fact 
objectionable. Boulton and Watt meant that a one-horse 
engine would at any moment perform the work of a very 
strong horse. An average horse will raise but 22,000 
pounds one foot in a minute. 

A horse can travel 400 yards at a walk in 4^ minutes, 
at a trot in 2 minutes, and a gallop in 1 minute ; he occu- 
pies in a stall from 3^^ to 4^ feet front, and at a picket 3 
feet by 9; and his average weight equals 1,000 pounds. 

A horse carrying 225 pounds can travel 25 miles in a 
day of 8 hours. 

A draught- horse can draw 1,600 pounds 23 miles a day, 
weight of carriage included. 



BOILERS AND HORSE-POWER. 65 

In a horse-mill a horse moves at the rate of 3 feet in a 
second. The diameter of the track should not be less 
than 25 feet. 

The strength of a horse is equivalent to that of 5 men. 

The daily allowance of water for a horse should be 4 
gallons. 

Horse Stalls. — Width 3 feet 10 inches to 4 feet, or else 
5 feet or over in width, 9 feet long. Width should never 
be between 4 and 5 feet, as in such cases the horse is 
liable to cast himself. 



STEAn PUriPINQ riACHINERY. 



The following remarks on above subject, together with 
rules relative to steam and water, are compiled from the 
very interesting and excellent catalogue of Geo. F. 
Blake Maj^ufacturing Co., 95 and 97 Liberty Street, 
'New York. , one of the largest and most reliable of the 
manufacturers of pumping machinery. The pumps of 
this firm are used at our works (Repauno Chemical 
Co.) at Thompson's Point, IS^ew Jersey, with satisfac- 
tory results. 

The Blake Pump is positive in action, i. e. , the opera- 
tion at the slowest speed, under any pressure, is per- 
fectly continuous. 

By an ingenious and simple arrangement the "dead 
centre" is overcome in these pumps, as will be seen by 
the following engravings and description: — 




OPERATION. 

The main or pump driving piston A could not be made 
to work slowly were the main valve to derive its move- 
ment solely from this piston ; for when this valve had 
reached the centre of its stroke, in which position the 
ports leading to the main cylinder would be closed, no 
steam could enter the cylinder to act on said piston, con- 
sequently the latter would come to rest, since its momen- 
tum would be insufficient to keep it in motion, and the 
main valve would remain in its central position or " dead 
centre." To shift this valve from its central position 
and admit steam in front of the main piston (whereby 

(66) 



STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY. 



67 



the motion of the piston is reversed and its action con- 
tinued), some agent independent of the main piston 
must be used. In the Blake Pump, this independent 
agent is the supplemental or valve driving piston B. 




Fig, 3 



MgJ^ 





The main valve which controls the admission of steam 
to, and the escape of steam from, the main cylinder, is 
divided into two parts, one of which, C, slides upon a 
seat on the main cylinder, and at the same time affords 
a seat for the other part, D, which slides upon the 
upper face of C. As shown in the engravings, JD is at 
the left-hand end of its stroke and C at the opposite or 
right-hand end of its stroke. Steam from the steam 
chest, J, is therefore entering the right-hand end of the 
main cylinder through the ports E and JST, and the ex- 
haust is escaping through the ports H^ E^^ K and M, 
which causes the main piston A, to move from right to 
left. When this piston has nearly reached the left-hand 
end of its cylinder, the valve motion (not shown) moves 



68 STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY. 

the valve rod P, and thus causes O, together with its 
supplemental valves B and S iS^ (which form, with O, 
one casting), to be moved from right to left. This move- 
ment causes steam to be admitted to the left-hand end of 
the supplemental cylinder, whereby its piston B will be 
forced toward the right, carrying I) with it to the oppo- 
site or right-hand end of its stroke ; for the movement 
of S closes N (the steam port leading to the right-hand 
end), and the movement of S^ opens JV^ (the steam port 
leading to the opposite or left-hand end), at the same 
time the movement of V opens the right-hand end of 
this cylinder to the exhaust, through the exhaust ports 
X and Z. The parts C and 2) now have positions oppo- 
site to those shown in the engravings, and steam is 
therefore entering the main cylinder through the ports 
E'^ and H^ and escaping through the ports H, U, K and 
M, which will cause the main piston A to move in the 
opposite direction, or from left to right, and operations 
similar to those already described will follow, when the 
piston approaches the right-hand end of its cylinder. 
By this simple arrangement the pump is rendered posi- 
tive in its action, that is, it will instantly start and con- 
tinue working the moment steam is admitted to the 
steam-chest. 

The main piston A can not strike the heads of its cylin- 
der ; for the main valve has a lead, or, in other words, 
steam is always admitted in front of said piston just be- 
fore it reaches either end of its cylinder, even should 
the supplemental piston, J5, be tardy in its action and 
remain with D at that end toward which the piston A is 
moving, for C would be moved far enough to open the 
steam port leading to the main cylinder, since the possible 
travel of C is greater than that of D. 

The supplemental piston B can not strike the heads of 
its cylinder, for in its alternate passage beyond the ex- 
haust ports X and X^, it cushions on the vapor en- 
trapped in the ends of this cylinder. 

TANK OR LIGHT SERVICE PUMPS. 

For light service, such as elevating water and other 
liquids short distances and to limited heights, these 
pumps are both economical and effective. They com- 
bine large pumping capacity with small expenditure of 
steam — the cylinders being proportioned accordingly. 
They are principally used at Railroad Water Stations, 
Reservoirs, Gas and Oil Works, Bleacheries, Tanneries, 
Refineries, Plantations, Distilleries, Chemical Works, 
etc. 

A variety of valves are used in these pumps suitable 



STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY. 69 

for pumping hot or cold, thin or thick, alkaline or 
acidulous liquids, varying in gravity from alcohol to 
white lead. 

For Quarries and Clay Pits, also for Coffer Dams, 
Tunnels, Foundation Pits, Ore Beds, Sewerage and Irri- 
gating purposes, these pumps are especially adapted, 
having large water passages and valve openings. 

The water cylinders are arranged with composition 
linings, valve seats, valve bolts, piston rods, stuffing 
boxes, and water pistons ; these last are packed with ad- 
justable fibrous packing. 

Auxiliary Boiler Feed Pumps (single action plunger 
pattern) attached when required. Prices as follows: 
Sizes A*, A and AA, $15 ; Sizes AAA and B, $25 ; Sizes 
BB, BBB and C, $35, etc. Prices of pumps with Water 
Cylinders entirely of Composition Extra. The hand 
power attachment applied to the first four sizes. 

^^^^ In ordering, parties should state fully the duty 
to be performed, also size and length of pipes. 



MINING PUMPS. 

Regular Piston Pattern. These pumps are positive 
under any pressure. In case of a mine being suddenly 
flooded, these pumps will continue to work under water 
so long as steam or air pressure is applied. 

These pumps are noiseless in operation, and will work 
on the heaviest lifts. 

Removable Cylinder Pattern. In mines where the 
water is very gritty the use of a plunger pump is often 
prohibited on account of limited room or other circum- 
stances; a piston pump can.be substituted, and to secure 
greater durability this class of pumps is arranged with 
a removable cylinder. This cylinder can be partially 
turned in the pump, so that when bottom i^art is cut or 
worn (this is the point of usual wear) a new surface can 
be brought into position, and thus the wear be distribu- 
ted. When cylinder is worn out a new one can be readily 
replaced. 

If it become necessary to place the pump lower in the 
mine, — thus increasing head to be pumped against, — the 
original cylinder can be changed for one of smaller bore. 

Double Plunger Pattern. Most efficient pumps for 
heavy lifts. The plungers have outside stuffing-boxes 
which can be readily packed, and expose any leakage 
through the glands. 

The connecting rods are supported and controlled on 
adjustable ways, keeping plungers in line and preventing 
wear. 



70 



STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY. 



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76 



STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY. 



INDEPENDENT AIR-PUMP AND JET CON- 
DENSER, FOR EVERY CLASS OF STEAM 

ENGINES. 

The Blake Independent Aib Pump and Jet Con- 
denser. — It is positive in its action, and having no mecha- 
nical connection with the steam engine, the air pump can 
be operated independently and a vacuum formed for the 
engine before the latter is started. The speed of the 
pump can also be regulated according to the temperature 
of the injection water and the requirements of the engine 
under different loads. There is no drag on the engine, 
which is a very important feature, especially for high- 
speeded engines that are now coming into such general 
use. 

The condenser is of special construction, whereby the 
injection water is sprayed very finely without possibility 
of fouling or clogging with dirt or floating matter drawn 
in with the water. An original and valuable feature of 
the condenser is the automatic vacuum breaking attach- 
ment, by which an opening is instantly made to the at- 
mosphere, should the injection water accumulate above 
a safe line in the condenser. By the breaking of the 
vacuum no water can be drawn in by suction, and conse- 
quently, under such circumstances, no water can possibly 
enter the cylinder of the steam engine to the injury of 
the same. 





- 


Sizes 


AND : 


Prices as follows: 


u 


i 




§^ 


OS 

3 a3 












u 








Remarks. 


o 









w 


u 




34 
34 

4 


44 


4 


3 


1 
2 


$225 




44 


6 


a 




375 




6 


6 


3 


325 




5J 


8 


7 


i 


i 






5j 


8 


10 


j 


1 






6 


9 


10 


f 


1 






6 


10 


12 


4 


1 






8 


12 


12 


1 


14 






10 


14 


12 


ij 


2 






10 


14 


18 


ij 


2 






10 


16 


18 


1-. 


2 






12 


18 


18 


14 
14 
14 


24 
2| 
24 






12 


18 


24 






12 


20 


24 






14 


20 


24 


2 


3 






14 


22 


24 


2 


3 






16 


24 


24 


2 


3 







ALSO PATTERNS FOR LARGER SIZES OR OTHER COMBINA- 
TIONS OF CYLINDERS. 



STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY. 77 

The apparatus is self-contained (no expensive founda- 
tion is necessary) and requires no additional pump for 
the injection water, or a head of water to supply the 
condenser. It will maintain a steady and uniform vac- 
uum (and as high as may be required), no matter how 
variable the load on the engine may be. 

The lining, valve seats, piston rod, stuffing boxes, 
etc., of the air cylinder are made of the best gun-metal 
composition; the piston is also made of the same mate- 
rial, suitably packed. 

Parties in ordering should give size of their steam en- 
gine, number of revolutions per minute, steam pressure, 
and point of cut-off; also what is the character of the 
injection water supply, and the distance, horizontally 
and vertically, the water has to be raised. 

The amount of injection water required for conden- 
sing varies with the temperature of the water and the 
economy of the steam engine — usually it takes from 1 to 
1^ gallons per minute for each horse-power developed by 
the engine, according to the season of the year and the 
source from which the water is obtained. 

AUTOMATIC EXHAUST RELIEF VALVE. 

The Blake Company recommend their Patent Belief 
Yalve for placing in the exhaust pipes of steam engines 
on which Independent Air Pumps and Condensers are 
used. It is automatic in its action and prompt to act in 
case the vacuum, for any reason, is destroyed. This 
valve is absolutely tight when seated, but immediately 
any back pressure is shown by the failure of the vacuum, 
it instantly opens, thereby allowing the engine to ex- 
haust freely into the atmosphere. As soon as the vacuum 
is restored the valve closes promptly and without noise. 
Prices of these valves as follows: 4-inch, $40; 5-inch, 
$48; 6-inch, $55; 8-inch, $ ; 10- inch, $ ; 12-inch, $ 

VERTICAL STEAM PUMPS, FOR LOCOMO- 
TIVES, STEAM LAUNCHES, ETC. 

For feeding boilers of locomotives, steam launches, 
steam yachts, and for other places where floor space is 
very limited, these Improved Vertical Pumps are espe- 
cially adapted. They are double-acting, and, being very 
compact, take but little room. Being positive and con- 
tinuous in their action, they deliver a steady stream of 
water to the boilers at any speed desired. 

For locomotives they can be placed in any convenient 
position — under the foot-boards, if preferred. For steam 
launches and steam yachts they are usually bolted to 
the side of the boilers. 



78 



STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY. 



Sizes aistd Pkiges as Follows: 



1 


if 




o 

02 


c o 
Os3 


Capacity' 
er Minute 
t Ordinary 
Speed, 








ft 


Dimensions 
over all. 


6 










A 


* P,33 

















3i 


24 


3 


.04 


6 Gals. 


i 


4 


1 


3 
5 


i lOX 8 wide 
( X26high. 


$85 


li 


4 


2| 


5 


.10 


15 " 


4 


1 


li 


1 


11X10 wide 
( X421iigh. 


125 


2i 


4i 


21 


6 


.15 


22 *' 


i 


1 


li 


1 


(11X10 wide 
( X44high. 


150 



LARGER SIZES TO ORDER. 

* Twice the above capacities can be had in emergencies ; but for continuous 
work, such as boiler- feeding, about half the capacities stated is fair work for 
regular duty. 

The above pumps are provided with hand-power 
attachments, without extra charge. 

The utility of Patent Hand-Power Attachment 
will be seen at once, as the pump can be used, when 
steam is down, for filling boilers after "blowing off," 
washing decks, etc. 

Patterns also for Vertical Tank or Light Service 
Pumps, Marine Pumps, etc. 

Mr. O. E. Jackson, Supt. Kepauno Chemical Co., ad- 
vises writer that a simple and effective way to clean 
pipes clogged up with mud, is first to pump air, and 
then water through them. 



USEFUL INFORHATION. 



STEAM. 

A cubic inch of water evaporated under ordinary 
atmospheric pressure is converted into 1 cubic foot of 
steam (approximately). 

The specific gravity of steam (at atmospheric pressure) 
is .411 that of air at 34° Fahrenheit, and .0006 that of 
water at same temperature. 

27.222 cubic feet of steam weigh one pound; 13.817 
cubic feet of air weigh one pound. 

Locomotives average a consumption of 3,000 gallons of 
water per 100 miles run. 

The best designed boilers, well set, with good draft, 
and skilful firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 pounds of 
water per pound of first-class coal. 

In calculating horse-power of tubular or flue boilers, 
consider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to 
one nominal horse-power. 

On one square foot of grate can be burned on an aver- 
age from 10 to 12 pounds of hard coal, or 18 to 20 pounds 
soft coal, per hour, with natural draft. With forced 
draft nearly double these amounts can be burned. 

Steam engines, in economy, vary from 14 to 60 pounds 
of feed water and from 1^ to 7 pounds of coal per hour 
per indicated H. P. See table below for duty of high 
grade engines. 

Condensing engines require from 20 to 30 gallons of 
water, at an average low temperature, to condense the 
steam represented by every gallon of water evaporated 
in the boilers supplying engines — approximately for 
most engines, we say, from 1 to H gallons condensing 
water per minute per indicated horse-power. 

Surface condensers should have about 2 square feet of 
tube [cooling] surface per horse-power for a compound 
steam engine. Ordinary engines will require more surface 
according to their economy in the use of steam. It is 
absolutely necessary to place air pumps below condensers 
to get satisfactory results. 

Katio of Yacuum to Temperature (Fahrenheit) 

OF Feed Water. 



00 inches. Vacuum . 212° 

11 " " . 190° 

18 ^' '' . 170° 

221 " " . 150° 

*25 " '' . 135° 

* Usually considered the standard point of efficiency — Condenser and Air 
Pump being well proportioned. 



27i inches. Vacuum 112° 

28i " " . 92° 

29 '' " . 72° 

291 '' '' . 52° 



(79) 



80 



USEFUL INFORMATION". 



WEIGHT AK^D COMPARATIVE FUEL VALUE 

OF WOOD. 

One cord Air-dried Hickory or Hard Maple weighs 
about 4, 500 pounds, and is equal to about 2,000 pounds 
coal. 

One cord Air- dried White Oak weighs about 3,850 
pounds, and is equal to about 1,715 pounds coal. 

One cord Air-dried Beech, Red Oak, and Black Oak, 
weighs about 3,250 pounds, and is equal to about 1,450 
pounds coal. 

One cord Air-dried Poplar (white wood). Chestnut 
and Elm, weighs about 2,350 pounds, and is equal to 
about 1,050 pounds coal. 

One cord Air-dried Average Pine, weighs about 2,000 
pounds, and is equal to about 925 pounds coal. 

From the above it is safe to assume that 2^ pounds of 
dry wood is equal to 1 pound average quality of soft 
coal, and that the fuel value of the same weight of diifer- 
ent woods is very nearly the same — that is, a pound of 
hickory is v/orth no more for fuel than a pound of pine, 
assuming both to be dry. It is important that the wood 
be dry, as each 10 per cent, of water or moisture in 
wood will detract about 12 per cent, from its value as 
fuel. 

DUTY OF STEAM ENGLS^ES. 

A well-known engineer of high authority gives the 
following comparative figures showing the economy of 
high grade steam engines in actual practice : — 



Type of Engine. 



Non-Condensing 
Condensing . . 
Compound Jacketed 
Triple Expansion 
Jacketed . , 



emperature 

of 
eed Water. 


bs. of Water 
Evaporated 
rib. of Cum- 
brian d Coal. 


Pounds of 
Steam per 
H. P. used 
per hour. 


bs. of Cum- 
erland Coal 
sed per I. H- 
'. per hour. 


H ^ 


^«^3 


t— 1 


-Jx> ^S'-i 


210° 


10.5 


29. 


2.75 


100° 


9.4 


20. 


2.12 


100° 


9.4 


17. 


1.81 


100° 


9.4 


13.6 


1.44 



w 



o 



^ o.55£« 



*■* (1) 






Q.— . ^ 
P «S ft 
00 O 
O 



S0.0073 
0.0056 
0.0045 

0.0036 



The effect of a good condenser and air pump should 
be to make available about 10 pounds more mean effect- 
ive pressure, with the same terminal pressure; or to give 
the same mean effective pressure with a correspondingly 
less terminal pressure. When the load on the engine 
requires 20 pounds M. E. P., the condenser does half the 
work ; at 30 pounds, one-third of the work ; at 40 pounds, 
one- fourth, and so on. It is safe to assume that practi- 
cally the condenser will save from one-fourth to one- third 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 



81 



of the fuel, and it can be applied to any engine, cut-off, 
or throttling, where a sufficient supply of water is 
available. Description of Blake's improved Air Pump 
and Condenser, given in text. 

Pressures, Temperature, and Volume of Steam, 
FROM Atmospheric Pressure to 140 Lbs. per 
Square Inch. 



3" 


1 


a 

o 

> 


u 

3" 

12 


1 

a> v 


s 

973. 


1^ — 

3« 

34 




6 

B 
s 

o 

> 


3^ 

90 


1 

at a> 

Ba 

« OS 
H 


6 

B 

1— 1 
o 

> 


Atmosph. 
Pres. 


212.8 


1669. 


245.5 


281.9 


564. 


335.8 


282. 


* 1 


216.2 


1573. 


14 


249.6 


911. 


40 


289.3 


508. 


95 


339.2 


271. 


2 


219.6 


1488. 


16 


253.6 


857. 


45 


295.5 


470. 


100 


342.7 


259. 


3 


222.7 


1411. 


18 


257.3 


810. 


50 


301.3 


437. 


105 


345.8 


251. 


4 


225.6 


1343. 


20 


260.9 


767. 


55 


306.4 


408. 


110 


349.1 


240. 


5 


228.5 


1281. 


22 


264.3 


729. 


60 


311.2 


383. 


115 


352.1 


233. 


6 


231.2 


1225. 


24 


267.5 


695. 


65 


315.8 


362. 


120 


355. 


224. 


7 


233.8 


1174. 


26 


270.6 


664. 


70 


320.1 


342. 


125 


357.9 


218. 


8 


236.3 


1127. 


28 


273.6 


635. 


75 


324.3 


325. 


130 


360.6 


210. 


9 


238.7 


1084. 


30 


276.4 


610. 


80 


328.2 


310. 


135 363.4 


205. 


10 


241. 


1044. 


32 


279.2 


586. 


85 


332. 


295. 


140 


366. 


198. 



* These are boiler pressures (above atmospheric), as shown by the steam 
gauge. The temperatures are Fahrenheit scale. The volumes given repre- 
sent cubic inches of steam for every cubic inch of water evaporated. 



Percentage of Saving of Fuel by Heating Feed- 
Water. 











(Steam at 60 lbs.) 












inal 

mper- 

ture. 


INITIAL TEMPERATURE OF WATER. 


l^.^ 


32^ 


40* 


50«> 


60° 


70° 


803 


90^ 


100^ 


120^ 


140^ 


160° 


180'' 


60° 


2.39 


1.71 


0.86 














80 


4.09 


3.43 


2.59 


1.74 


0.88 
















100 


5.79 


5.14 


4.32 


3.49 


2.64 


1.77 


0.90 












120 


7.50 


6.85 


6.05 


5.23 


4.40 


3.55 


2.68 


1.80 










140 


9.20 


8.57 


7.77 


6.97 


6.15 


5.32 


4.47 


3.61 


1.84 








160 


10.90 


10.28 


9.50 


8.72 


7.91 


7.09 


6.26 


5.42 


3.67 


1.87 






180 


12.60 


12.00 


11.23 


10.46 


9.68 


8.87 


8.06 


7.23 


5.52 


3.75 


1.91 




200 


14.30 


13.71 


13.00 


12.20 


11.43 


10.65 


9.85 


9.03 


7.36 


5.62 


3.82 


1.96 


220 


16.00 


15.42 


14.70 


14.00 


13.19 


12.33 


11.64 


10.84 


9.20 


7.50 


5.73 


3.93 


240 


17.79 


17.13 


16.42 


15.69 


14.96 


14.20 


13.43 


12.65 


11.05 


9.37 


7.64 


5.f^0 


260 


19.40 


18.85 


18.15 


17.44 


16.71 


15.97 


15.22 


14.45 


11.88 


11.24 


9.56 


7.86 



82 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 



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USEFUL INFORMATION. 83 

USEFUL INFORMATION — WATER. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity- 
four times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the 
square of the velocity. See table of '' friction of water 
in pipes." 

The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually esti- 
mated at 14.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a per- 
fect vacuum it will sustain a column of mercury 29.9 
inches, or a column of water 33. 9 feet high at sea level. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a col- 
umn of water, multiply the height of the column in feet 
by .434. Approximately, we say that every foot elevation 
is equal to i pound pressure per square inch; this allows 
for ordinary friction. 

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a 
given quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston 
being the standard of speed) , divide the number of gal- 
lons by 4, then extract the square root, and the product 
will be the diameter in inches of the pump cylinder. 

To find quantity of water elevated in one minute, run- 
ning at 100 feet of piston speed per minute. Square the 
diameter of the water cylinder in inches and multiply 
by 4. 

Example. — Capacity of a 5-inch cylinder is desired. 
The square of the diameter (5 inches) in 25, which, mul- 
tiplied by 4, gives 100, the number of gallons per minute 
(approximately). 

To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water to a 
given height, multiply the weight of the water elevated 
per minute in pounds by the height in feet, and divide 
the product by 33,000 (an allowance should be added for 
water friction, and a further allowance for loss in steam 
cylinder, say from 20 to 30 per cent) . 

The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam 
pressure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be 
exerted. The area of the water piston, multiplied by the 
pressure of water per square inch, gives the resistance. 
A margin must be made between the power and the re- 
sistance to move the pistons at the required speed, say 
from 20 to 40 per cent., according to speed and other 
conditions. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiply 
the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will 
give the total number of cubic inches; divide this amount 
by 231 (which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon 
in inches), and product is the capacity in gallons. 



84 



USEFUL INFOBMATIOI^. 



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Weight of 

Water per 

foot of 

Length. 


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s 1-4 th CO ">ji t^ ai cq lo a: 00 00 d CO oo 


§g 


M 


•-1 r-lrHT-lCqCOlOCOt- 


^elded, 
elded, i 






-M nl *J ,K 

cftll^ 


^ iC b- Cq t- CO rH iH 00 tH IC Oi iO Oi b- IC -^ "^ lO 


"S'*t-ioocooorHiHC^Ci»OTticocqt-OTtiaiio 


+2 ft 


ajTjHocoiocoo^coococooaioqt-coioio^coco 

^ d t-^ lO Tp CO Cq Cq C<5 tH rH r-H 


5^ 


m ^ 






1 




a:) u 


•n ^ 




fH r^ 


^ fi^ 


!Koq:OTHcqai"*icOiTHcqco':ot-ooiocO"*cococq 


c3 


£ a Q> 
o S " 


Sjt-GicqioaicoiHcococoosocoob-i-iiooicoi.— 


J^ ^ 


'gC<]OT-jCO(>JrH(^qO:'^OCl)OrHt-Td4QOO:0^t-; 


^^ 


■2 = c 
X f^ Q^ 


crHrHcqcqco-^icict^ddcq'^iot-^dcob^dco 




^ r-l tH rH rH r-l C<1 <M Cq CO CO 








;^ 




^ c3 




2 o Tt< t- 'sjH lo th CO t-b- CO cq (?q (M 00 lo 






^ "^ io CO 00 o CO CO a: CO 00 lO io ^ lo co co co cc «>; 

^ * * * * tH rH rH rH Cq (?q CO rH -"^ lO lO CO t^ 00 d d 




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^ HlO0r-W(C0iQ0HffTCOlrH r-H<Hl(M H|N HfM h|« 




2 a 


g tH rH rH Cq (>q CO CO tH Tff »C CO t- 00 O O 
M ^ 







USEFUL INFOKMATION. 



85 



N 

M 



o 



l-H 

Ph 
O 

I 

H 



H 






o 



CO 

^ n 

O 



Oh 



w 






O 

CO 

O 

M 

w 

Oi 



Id 



•q:^5uai ut -y i 
JOJ suoii^S 
ui s;u9;uoo 


COt-(NaiT-li-iCOb-^(M(MO(MOO(M 

cr!COiC"^THGCt-C54lC<lCOlOt-QOO 


300 ft. Head 

or 129.90 lbs. 

Pressure. 


J9d 
;qSi9Ai 


THCqcOiOQOOCOtDO^tMGCOi-i 
r-\ t-i r-i 0\ (^ so "^ ZO T-i 

T— 1 


•man 
.;o 

ss9u:5ioiqX 


THrHrHrH 


250 ft. Head 

or 108.25 lbs. 

Pressure. 


•mSu9T: 

J9d 
;qSi9A\. 


r-l<M^:i»Ot-OC^iOOOC<lOrhiTHC^T 

tHtHtHtHC^ICC^OO 

tH 


•Ib;9h 

JO 
SS9U510IIIX 


tHtHtH 


200 ft. Head 

or 86.60 lbs. 

Pressure. 


•q)Sa97 

J9d 
:mSi9^ 


CCt-OOT-HCiCO'^THCOTHtD— l»OCOO 


JO 
SS9U5lDiqX 


aOT-ib-t-ooCiOiOOTH<MCO>OCDO 

rHrHrH 


150 ft. Head 

or 64.85 lbs. 

Pressure. 


•q:^§u9i 
J9d 

:jqSi9^ 


(MCCr-liOtMiMiOT-lOOrtHOiOcr^T-l 

t-iOi-l'NHOOOOOrH:OCOG^OOCCC:cO 

TH(MCOlOOOOr-ICOOC:iOI>-OTt( 

r-l tH rH tH (M CO lO OO 


•IBJ9PI 
JO 

ss9U5ioiqx 


0(MiOC^^CiCOXiS<Jt-<Mi-l»OGOCO 

coccco(Mt-rHccoioai'*co:oci:c 
cococcTfi'^ioiococc^t^GoaiOco 


100 ft. Head 

or 43.30 lbs. 

Pressure. 


■qjgu9i 

J9d 
;qSi9^ 


b-OTflO»OTHCOrHCOOCOaiCOTHT-l 

:O^OCOt-'vH(NCOiOOCCTtlt:-00(M 

TH(MC0'<*O00OC<li0t-C0C0iC)O 

tHtHt— Ir- ((MCO'^t- 


•Ib;9H 

JO 
SS9U5lDiqx 


C^TCOCOTHOCfit^CO-^COC^OiiOOCq 
COCOCO'^'vJH^iOiOCD^CjDt-.GOO^Cq 

* * * * tH 


50 ft. Head 

or 21.65 lbs. 

Pressure. 


•q:^Su9^; 

J9d 
;qSt9Ai 


£23i^^^Q^<^»^ocoooocD 

THi-HCO^Xit-CiC^COtOTHOOCO 
T-( rH tH (M CO '* to 


•l^;9W 

JO 

ss9U5ioiqx 


C^COCOCOrJi"^'^lO)OiC:OCOb-ODO 
tH 


25 tt. Head 

or 10.82 lbs. 

Pressure. 


'q'^3u9i 

J9d 
;qSi9A^ 


th cq o o CO cc o 

lo CO CO o lo b- cq 

tH T-H CO •<*l lO l>« 


JO 

ss9U5ioiqx 


lO O O iO CO (M O 
iO Cq CO t- CO TtH '* 
Cq CO CO CO -^ rJH Tt< 


'UlTB 


ip 9piSUI 
9ZIS 


CqcO'*COQOOCq'*OOOOrHOCOGO 
r-lTHiHTHT-t<M(MCOCO"* 



c3 

C3 

cr 

CO 



o 

CO 



O 

r— ( 

C« 
O 



pi 

o 

c« 

02 
,^ 

fcC 
• I— t 

C^ 05 fl 

^>^ 

^^.^ 

G g rt 

(D <-> r-j 
•^ ^ T^ 

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ou bSjT^ 

rj.rH 
+3 05 ^ 

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<< 



86 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 



FKICTION OF WATER IN PIPES. 

Friction-loss in pounds pressure per square inch, for 
each 100 feet of length in different size clean iron pipes, 
discharging given quantities of water per minute. 



2 o 






Sizes of Pipes. 


—Inside Diameter. 






Galloi 

per 

Minul 




4 


en 

B 


B 


B 


03 




1 4 
inches. 


CO 

CD'S 

B 


5 


3.3 


.84 


.31 


.12 


— 





_ 





10 


13.0 


3.16 


1.05 


.47 


.12 


- 


- 


- 


— 


15 


28.7 


6.98 


2.38 


.97 


- 


- 


- 


- 


_ 


20 


50.4 


12.03 


4.07 


1.66 


.42 


— 


- 


- 


_ 


25 


78.0 


19.00 


6.40 


2.62 


- 


.21 


.10 


- 


— 


30 


- 


27.05 


9.15 


3.75 


.91 


— 


■- 


- 


_ 


35 


— 


37.00 


12.04 


5.05 


— 


— 




- 


_ 


40 


— 


48.00 


16.01 


6.52 


1.60 


— 


- 


— 





45 


- 


- 


20.02 


8.15 


- 


- 


- 


- 


_ 


50 


- 


- 


24.09 


10.00 


2.44 


.81 


.35 


.09 


_ 


75 


- 


— 


50.01 


22.04 


5.32 


1.80 


• 74 


- 


_ 


100 


- 


- 


- 


39.00 


9.46 


3.20 


1.31 


.33 


.05 


125 


- 


- 


- 


- 


14.09 


4.89 


1.99 


— 


— 


150 


- 


- 


- 


- 


21.02 


7.00 


2.85 


.69 


.10 


175 


— 


- 


- 


- 


28.01 


9.46 


3.85 


_ 


_ 


200 


- 


- 


— 


- 


37.05 


12.47 


5.02 


1.22 


.17 



2 ?3 






Sizes 


OF Pipes.—] 


[NSiDE Diameter. 






Galloi 
per 




"1 


tn 

1.89 


03 

o 

B 


(Xt 

.2 
.07 


03 

B 
.03 


CO 


^1 


09 

CD S 




250 


19.66 


7.76 


.26 


.01 


— 


_ 





300 


28.66 


11.02 


2.66 


.37 


.09 


.04 


- 


- 


- 


— 


350 


— 


15.02 


3.65 


.50 


.12 


.05 


.02 


- 


- 


— 


400 


- 


19.05 


4.73 


.65 


.16 


.06 


- 


- 


- 


— 


450 


— 


25.00 


6.01 


.81 


.20 


.07 


.03 


- 


- 


- 


500 


- 


30.08 


7.43 


.96 


.25 


.09 


.04 


.017 


.009 


.005 


750 


— 


— 


- 


2.21 


.53 


.18 


.08 


- 


- 


— 


1,000 


- 


- 


- 


3.88 


.94 


.32 


.13 


.062 


.036 


.020 


1,250 


- 


- 


- 


- 


1.46 


.49 


.20 


- 


- 


— 


1,500 


- 


- 


- 


- 


2.09 


.70 


.29 


.135 


.071 


.040 


1,750 
2,000 


— 


— 


— 


: 


: 


.95 
1.23 


.38 
.49 


.234 


.123 


.071 


2,250 
2,500 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


.63 

.77 


.362 


.188 


.107 


8,000 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


1.11 


.515 


.267 


.150 


3,500 


- 


— 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


.697 


.365 


.204 


4,000 


- 


— 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


.910 


.472 


.263 


4,500 


— 


— 


— 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


.593 


.333 


5,000 


- 


- 


- 




- 


- 


- 


~ i 


.730 


.408 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 



87 



Weight and Capacity of Diffekent Standard 
Gallons of Water. 



Imperial or English 
United States . . 



Cubic In. 

in a 
Gallon. 



277.274 
231. 



Weight of 

a Gallon 

in lbs. 



Gallons 

in a 

Cubic Foot. 



10.00 6.232102 
8.33111 1 7.480519 



"Weight of a 
Cubic Foot of 

Water, English 

Standard, 

equal 62.321 

lbs. avoirdupois. 



Weight of Crude Petroleum, 6^ pounds^ 

per U. S. gallon. 1 42 gallons to 

Weight of Refined Petroleum, 6i pounds [ the barrel. 

per TJ. S. gallon. J 

A "miner's inch" of water is approximately equal to 
a supply of 12 U. S. gallons per minute. 

Water presses equally in every direction, and finds its 
level. 



THE PULSOMETER STEAJl- 

PUMP. 

As made by '' The Pulsometer Steam Pump Co.,^^ 120 
Liberty Street, New York, 



THE NEW PULSOMETER. 

The Pulsometer is a simple piece of casting, formed 
in one piece, consisting of a pair of chambers called 
working chambers, side by side, joined at their top ends 
by tapering necks with a third chamber situated between 
them. These three chambers are connected at or near 
their bottom ends with certain passages which are cov- 
ered with suitable valves, and are also provided with an 
inlet and outlet opening for water, and at their top ends 
with means for connecting with a steam- pipe leading to 
boiler. 

OPERATION. 

It is only necessary to place the Pulsometer in the 
desired position, and connect it with the proper suction 
and delivery pipes and with a steam supply, when it will, 
by simply opening the steam valve as per directions, 
perform within its scope all that the most complicated 
steam piston- pump can do. 

Its two working chambers fill and discharge alternately 
just the same as a steam-pump, but it has no piston. 
The level surface of the water within the chamber serves 
as a most perfect piston in the action of the Pulsometer. 

EXPLANATION. 

The steam enters at the top, or neck, of pump, and 
passes into whichever chamber the position of the steam- 
ball valve permits, and pressing upon the surface of the 
water therein, forces it down and out past the discharge 
valves, and through the discharge pipe. So soon as the 
water line has been forced downward to the discharge 
outlet, the steam above it instantly condenses, owing to 
the peculiar construction of the Pulsometer, and a nearly 
perfect vacuum is formed, and the chamber in conse- 
quence suddenly fills again. 

Now, while the steam is entering this chamber, which 
we will designate as the *' left-hand" one, the steam ball 
valve is seated over the entrance to the *' right-hand" 

(88) 



THE PULSOMETER STEAM-PUMP. 



89 



chamber, preventing the entrance of steam thereto, but 
so soon as the sudden collapse of steam occurs, it is 
instantly drawn over to its seat at the entrance to the 




Perspective View. 



left-hand" chamber, thus cuts oif the admission of 
steam thereto, and allows it to enter the other cliambcr 
and expel the water therefrom in the same manner as 
described for the "left-hand chamber." 



90 THE PULSOMETEE, STEAM-PUMP. 

The steam and water occupy the same chamber alter- 
natively, and will thus alternate, keeping up a continuous 
outflow as long as steam and water are supplied. 

There being absolutely no working parts in the con- 
struction of the Pulsometer, it is obvious that water 
loaded with sand, grit, or thick mud, may be pulsated 
through it with as little injury to its interior as to the 
pipes leading to and from it. The disks of rubber which 
serves as valves in the lower part of the Pulsometer are 
of the simplest form, and while they will last for years, 
they can be interchanged for new in a few minutes. 
Suitable flanged covers are provided for this purpose, 
as is shown in the cut. 

USES FOR THE PULSOMETER. 

Requiring no foundation it may be hung up or set down 
in a convenient place. 

In a suspended position it is used for sinking wells and 
shafts, and in positions where it is impossible to make a 
foundation for a pump, it may be hung from a projecting 
beam, or from a pole or tripod, and arranged with suit- 
able tackle to be lowered or raised at will. Suitable 
flexible steam and water connections are provided for 
the purpose. 

Also in quarrying and rock excavations, where blasting 
is necessary, the Pulsometer may be in a moment lifted 
out of danger by means of the derrick, and be imme- 
diately placed in position again, when blasting opera- 
tions are over. It has no breakable parts to be injured 
by rough usage. 

In its capability of suspension in operation, and of 
being lowered and raised, and swung about without in- 
terrupting its work, the Pulsometer stands without a 
rival. 

THE NEW PULSOMETER. 

The illustration, page 91, represents in section the form 
of the "Pulsometer," which in design and construction, 
and universal scope of usefulness, will be found to com- 
bine maximum durability, efficiency, simplicity, and 
strength, with minimum weight, size, and operative ex- 
penditure. 

Its operation is sustained by steam pressure brought 
to bear directly upon the liquid as the forcing element, 
while the subsequent condensation of the same furnishes 
the lifting force to supply the pump, which action is 
maintained by the purely functional conditions of alter- 
nate pressure and vacuum. 

DESCRIPTION. 

The Pulsometer consists principally of two bottle- 
shaped chambers. A, A, joined together, with tapering 
necks bent towards each other, to which is attached, by 



THE Jr-ULSOMETER STEAM-PUMP. 



91 



means of a flange joint, B, a continuous passage from 
each cylinder leading to one common upright passage, 
into whicli a small ball, C, is fitted so as to oscillate witli 
a slight rolling motion between seats formed in the junc- 
tion. 




Sectional View. 



These chambers also connect by means of openings 
with the vertical induction i^assage, D, which openings 
are so formed that the valves, E, E, and their seats, F, F, 
may be easily insei-ted. 

The delivery passage, H, which is common to both 
chambers, is also constructed so that in the opening that 
communicates with each cylinder can be placed tlie 
valves and valve-seats, G, G, of the same style as in the 



92 THE PULSOMETER STEAM-PUMP. 

induction passage. I, I, are valve-guards to prevent the 
valves from opening too far. 

J represents the vacuum chamber, between the necks 
of chambers A, A, and connects only with the induction 
passage below the valves E, E. 

K, K, are flanges covering the openings to the respec- 
tive chambers, so as to facilitate the removal therefrom 
of valves and seats when necessary. Vent plugs are 
inserted into these flanges, for the purpose of drawing 
off the water to prevent freezing. 

L, L, are rods extending from the valve-guards to the 
set-screws M, M, by which the suction seats, valves, and 
guards, are tightly pressed to place. 

M, N, are brass socket-headed bolts by which the dis- 
charge seats, valves, and guards are drawn dow^n to place. 

A small brass air check-valve is screwed into the neck 
of each chamber. A, A, and one into the vacuum cham- 
ber, J, so that their stems hang downward. 

The check-valve in the neck of each chamber. A, A, 
allows a small quantity of air to enter above the water, 
to prevent the steam from agitating it on its first en- 
trance, and thus forms an air piston, preventing conden- 
sation. 

The check- valve in the vacuum chamber, J, serves to 
cushion the ramming action of the water consequent 
upon the filling of each chamber alternately. 

Advai^tages. — Its capability of suspension in opera- 
tion, and of being low^ered and raised, and s wung about 
without interrupting its work. 

Eequires no foundation. .. 

Cheapness in first cost and operation. 

The following examples of work done by a Pulsometer 
were kindly given to the writer by Major S. Canby, Park 
Engineer, Wilmington, Delaware. 

Actual work done. — Example 1. Steam conveyed 400 
feet from boiler to Pulsometer. Pressure at boiler 60 to 
80 lbs. Pressure at Pulsometer 40 lbs. With these con- 
ditions the Pulsometer pumped a semi-fluid material 
largely composed of clay up 20 feet, and the material 
was so solid that it required to be shovelled away from 
the discharge pipe. 

Example 2. In this case the Pulsometer was in a hole 
and covered with five feet of water, and inaccessible. 
When steam was turned on the Pulsometer pumped the 
hole dry in a comparatively short time. 

In comparing "The Pulsometer" with the regular 
direct acting steam-pump of the best makers, it will not 
exert as great power, and therefore is not capable of as 
great a lift, and cannot force water so high as the direct 
acting steam- pump. 

But for moderate lifts its cheapness and simplicity of 
construction and operation recommend it. 



THE PULSOMETER STEAM-PUMP. 



93 



m 




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O 




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P 


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p 


cn 




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P 


~* 


P 


P 


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P 


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^ 


l-J« 


no 


►Q 


fD 


P 


03 


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CO P' 

P o° 

O g p 



I— J 
P 

^^ 

p p 
^ ^• 

p"' 

CD 

^CD 

CO 

Hb r+- 

^ 3 

P ^ 



OC000-<l050i*'05fc0>-' 



P P 

O 
c-t- 
P 



P O •— ' 

^a '^ ^ 
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r1-^ * p' 
Op c-t- 

^ 2 p S. 

to 

OX 



CD 

r-t- 



p p <j o 

CD CD ci- 

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LO ^1 C/0 O 00 4^ h-^ ^1 CiT O 

xxxxxxxxxx 



2? 



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i:M icl- LiH 




^^^..v^r.^.^,.^ 


"O O -q rfi^ 05 l-i 1-^ 

OOOOTOOiOOOO 


Gallons 

per 
Minute. 


o'olrj Qc oi v^ CO to I-' 

O000i:0-<l0ti-ifc0 0i- 
OOOOOlOTOiOOtOt 


Weight. 



O^OO-qOCjTi^OOtOi-' 



5z5 

o 



H-l 


^ 


O Ox rfi>. to to 1-^ t-A l-A ^ 
OOO-^tO-^C^O-^Ci 

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OOOQOOOOOO 

oooooooooo 


p 



Of ^^ 00 to I-' t-i M ^ 

pppH-i-<iooaipp 

ooboooobo 
ooooooooo 



w 



p 



tOOCi4^COtOt-^H-i 

OX O to -1 Or OC ^1 LO 

ppOxOxppOip 1 

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9 

5 

p 



05 



o 






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K 

M 

w 

> 
o 

s 

GO 

r- 

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Co 



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c-t. 






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ct> 

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(72 



94 



THE PULSOMETER STEAM-PUMP. 



SPECIFIC ATIOKS OF UrRIGHT TUBULAR STEEL 

BOILERS. 

ADAPTED TO EACH SIZE PULSOMETERS. 



p. 

v. 
o 




03 U 
CO O) 

Kg 






o 


-4-1 03 




00 




be • 

C3«t-i 


Approx 

Weight 

Complete. 




P< 


4 


1 


In. 
24 


Ft. 
4 


o 
In. 

20 


o 
In. 

24 


N 














In. 
24 


Sq. Ft. 


Lbs. 


2. 


20 


31 


45 


1180 


3 


60 


5 


2 


24 


5 


20 


24 


31 


36 


60 


1280 


4 


110 


6 


3 


24 


6 


20 


24 


31 


48 


75 


1380 


5 


175 


9 


5 


30 


6 


25 


27 


50 


45 


118 


1960 


6 


300 


12 


6 


30 


7 


25 


27 


50 


57 


148 


2160 


7 


425 


15 


8 


36 


7 


31 


27 


68 


57 


186 


2980 


8 


750 


23 


10 


42 


8 


37 


33 


88 


63 


280 


4000 


9 


1100 


31 


12 


42 


10 


37 


33 


88 


87 


383 


4600 


10 


2200 


41 


14 


48 


10 


43 


33 


124 


87 


500 


6025 



These boilers are made for a working pressure of 100 
lbs., and are tested at 150 lbs. hydrostatic pressure per 
square inch. 



H0I5TINQ ENGINES. 



Hoisting engines are in such universal use on all public 
works, quarries, mines, etc., that a few remarks on this 
subject, together with tables, are here given, as com- 
piled from catalogue of the "Lidgerwood Manufac- 
turing Co,, of New York, the well-known maniilac- 
turers of hoisting engines, boilers and suspension cable- 
ways. 

Single Cylinder Friction Drum Portable Hoist- 
ing Engine, with boiler and fixtures complete on bed- 
plate. Specially adapted for pile-driving, railroads, con- 
tractors, bridge builders, coal-yards, docks, ships, quar- 
ries, and general hoisting. This engine made with or 
without foot-brake. 

Foot-Brakes are recommended as they save wear on the 
drum friction, although they are not actually required, 
as Improved Friction Drum answers for all ordinary 
lowering purposes. When it is desired to lower heavy 
weights, or long distances, or to use engine for other 
purposes, while the weight hoisted hangs, suspended, 
then foot-brakes should be used. They can be applied 
to any engine without them, at any time. 

Dock Wheels are of cast-iron, and their axle is clamped 
to bed plate. They are suitable for moving engine on 
docks, or on a smooth surface. 

DOUBLE CYLINDER FRICTION DRUM 
PORTABLE HOISTING ENGINE, WITH 
BOILER AND FIXTURES COMPLETE. 

Specially adapted for Pile Driving^ Railroads, Contrac- 
tors, Bridge Builders, Quarries, Docks, Coal Yards, 
Ships, and General Hoisting Duty. 

The Double Cylinder Engines are similar in all re- 
spects to the Single Cylinder Engines described above, 
except that they have the special feature of having 
no centres — the engines being connected at an angle 
of 90° — thus being much easier to start, handle, etc. 
This is of special importance for many kinds of 
hoisting, particularly for quarry and other heavy work, 
as they are always ready to start the load easily 
and steadily, while a single Cylinder Engine will 
occasionally get caught on the centre. We there- 

(95) 



96 HOISTIKG ENGINES. 

FORE RECOMMEND THE DOUBLE CYLINDER ENGINES 

FOR ALL GENERAL HOISTING PURPOSES where tliese ad- 
vantages more than outweigh the difference in the first 
cost of the engine. Inspirators are supplied for feeding 
the boilers, instead of pumps, as on the Single Cylinder 
Engines. Foot Brakes are recommended, although not 
actually required for ordinary hoisting purposes, except 
where it is desired to lower heavy weights, or long dis- 
tances, etc. 

Hoisting Engines Without Boilers Attached, 
are adapted where there is danger from fire, as on docks, 
in certain mines, etc. 

They are also adapted for all purposes where a com- 
pact and simple engine is required. They are very port- 
able, and convenient for use in tunnels, and all places 
where it would be impossible to erect a boiler. 

A boiler can be set at a distance to run one or more of 
these engines. 

They can be handled either at engine or at a distance. 

If desired compressed air can be used with these en- 
gines. 

These engines are lower in ]3rice than those with boiler 
attached, for equal power. 

HOISTIISTG ENGINES WITH DOUBLE 
FRICTION DRUMS. 

Hoisting Engines of both of the above types are also 
made with Double Friction Drum, operated with 
either Single or Double Cylinder. 

These engines adapted where two independent drums 
are required. 

For quarrying or heavy hoisting and general work the 
double cylinder is recommended. 

For pile driving the single cylinder does excellent work. 
A band fly-wheel is attached to the crank shaft, and is- 
properly turned off to receive belting for running a saw 
for cutting off piles, or furnishing power for other pur- 
poses. Each drum has ratchets and pawls for holding a 
weight suspended on one drum while the other is used, 
or while winch head on the same drum is being operated. 
Or the boom of a derrick can be held while the other 
drum hoists the load. 

Foot-Brakes. recommended for each drum, although 
not absolutely necessary for pile-driving work. There 
is a Winch Head on the outer end of each drum shaft. 

A single acting plunger pnmp, driven by an eccentric, 
is attached to the engine for feeding the boilers. 






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TRAMWAYS AND NARROW 
GAUGE RAILWAYS. 



This form of track is much in use among contractors 
and others interested in our public works, therefore we 
give some few practical rules and data with the hope 
that they may be of use and interest. 

WEIGHT OF KAILS, ETC. 

The most common weights used are 16, 20, 25, 30 and 

35 lbs. per yard. 

TABLE (Original). 



Weight of Rail 
ill lbs. per yard. 


Size of Spike 

Used. 

In Inches. 


Number of Spikes 
to Keg of 200 lbs. 


Weight of Spikes 

in lbs. per mile. 

Cross-Ties 2 feet 

apart, c. to c. 


16 
20 
25 
30 
35 


34X1 
4 XA 
4 Xi 

4^X? 
4^X2 


1190 
720 
600 
530 
530 


1780 
2940 
3520 
3960 
3960 



To get weight per mile of any rail needed for one mile 
of single track in tons of 2,240 lbs. Multiply the weight 
per yard by 11 and divide product by 7. 

Example. — What weight in tons of 2,240 lbs., of 16 lb. 
rail, will lay one mile of track? 16X11 = 176. 176-f-7 = 25 
tons 320 lbs. 

Eails are regularly sold by the ton of 2,240 lbs. The 
length of rails as usually sold is 90 per cent. 30 feet long, 
and 10 per cent. 24 and 28 feet long, requiring 357 splice 
joints per mile. 

SPLICE JOINTS PER MILE. 

(2 bars, and 4 bolts and nuts to each joint.) 
Rails 20 feet long = 528 joints. 



24 


u 


= 440 


26 


(( 


= 406 


28 


(; 


= 378 


30 


(( 


= 352 



Weights of splice joints vary according to their length, 
and also size of bolts. The general shape of rails, as 
well as their weight per yard, also controls the weight of 
splice joints. Splice joints are sold both by the piece 

• (99) 



100 TRAMWAYS & NARROW GAUGE RAILWAYS. 



and by weight. The average weight of splice joints 
(complete with 2 bars, and 4 bolts and nuts) is: 

For rails of 16 to 20 lbs. per yard, each joint weighs 

5 to 6 lbs. 

For rails of 24 to 28 lbs. per yard, each joint weighs 

6 to 8 lbs. 

For rails of 30 to 35 lbs. per yard, each joint weighs 
10 to 12 lbs. 

To find the size of rail needed for a locomotive : [H. K. 
Porter & Co.] multiply the number of tons (of 2,000 lbs.) 
on one driving wheel by ten, and the result is the number 
of lbs. per yard of the lightest rail advisable. Where 
there is greater weight on one set of driving-wheels than 
the other the heavier must be taken. This rule only 
approximate. 

CROSS TIES NEEDED FOR ONE MILE OF 
SINGLE TRACK. 



Centre to Centre in Feet. 


Ties. 


li 


3520 


IS 


3017 


2 


2640 


2i 


2348 


2i 


2113 



AVERAGE WEIGHTS AND CAPACITIES OF 
CARS (NARROW GAUGE;. 



Description. 


Weight of Car. 


Capacity. 


Contractor's Four 
Wheel Dump-Car, 

Contractors' Ro- 
tary Dump-Car, . 


) 2240 lbs. 
j 2000 " 

1 3775 " 


3 cubic yards. 

2 cubic yards. 

3 cubic yards. 



A cubic yard of loose earth weighs 2200 to 2600 lbs. 
wet sand '' 3000 to 3500 '' 

'' broken rock '' 2600 to 3000 "• 

Grades. — It may be economy to retain easy grade as 
long as possible, and then introduce steep grade, which 
may be overcome by momentum of train or by extra 
locomotive used as pusher. 

Reduce Grades on Curves. 

Gauge must be widened on curves. 

Sharp Curves should be avoided as much as possible. 

Very Light Rails not Economical. 

Wooden Rails. The best wood is maple, laid with 
heart up; heart jjine used in the South. 



TRAMWAYS & NARROW GAUGE RAILWAYS. 101 

The simplest form of wooden rails, is a stringer in 16 
to 20 feet lengths; 5 inches square good average size. 
When worn, wooden rails may be turned over. AVhere 
best wood, such as maple, is scarce, a strip of maple of 
the width of stringer, and say 1 inch thick, may be nailed 
upon some cheaper wood, as white oak; strip can be 
replaced when worn. Ties for wooden rails spaced 2 to 
4 feet apart, and are say 6 inches square, and at least 3 
feet longer than width of track. Ties cut out accurately 
to receive rails. The recess should be about 3 inches 
deep, and be at top of face of the tie one inch, and at the 
bottom of the recess 1^ inch wider than the rail. The 
inner faces of the recesses are perpendicular, and the 
distance between them is the gauge of the track. The 
bottom of recess should be level, and ties laid well to 
afford proper bearing for the stringer. 

Wedges, which are best made from the ends of stuff 
left from rails, are driven on the outside of the rails. 
They are made of right shape to fit the space left; the 
reason for making this space wider at the bottom than 
at the top is to keep the wedges from working up. 

Disadvantages of wooden rails. Wooden rails waste 
power, are very slippery in wet or freezing weather, re- 
quire constant repairs, and necessitate very slow speed. 

The disadvantages of this form of track are greatly 
reduced by nailing light strap- iron (not steel) upon the 
stringers. This gives better wear, greater tractile force, 
and the iron is worth something as scraj) when worn out. 



LIGHT LOCOnOTIVES. 



The subject of locomotives and motors is so ex- 
haustive that we are only able to give a tew hints as to 
powder, w^ork, etc., and would refer those interested in 
the subject to the manufacturers, the works of H. K. 
Porter & Co., of Pittsburgh, Pa., being one of the largest 
and best, the Company gladly giving any information 
required. The following matter is compiled from their 
catalogue. 

LIGHT "BACK-TRUCK'' LOCOMOTIVES. 

(For Logging Railroads and Similar Service.) 

Are adapted to logging and plantation railroads, where 
track is uneven and the speed slow; for switching and 
shifting, where heavy loads are to be stopped and started 
promptly; and for local passenger traffic, where the 
speed is fast and frequent stops are made. 




TABLE. 



Cylinders 



diameter, . . 
stroke, . . . 
Diameter of driving wheels 
Diameter of truck wheels, 
liigid wheel-base, . . . 
Total wheel-base, . . .. 
Length over all, .... 
Extreme height above rail, 
Weight in working order, 
Weight driving wheels, . 
Weight on two-wheel ra- 
dial-bar truck, .... 
Capacity of saddle tank, . 
Weight per yard of light- 
est steel rail advised, 



IIniiliii{2r Capacity on a 
level, in tons of 2,000 lb. 



6 inches. 
10 inches. 
24 inches. 
16 inches. 

4 ft. in. 

8 ft. 6 in. 
14 ft. in. 

9 ft. 6 in. 
15,000 lb. 
11,000 lb. 

4,000 lb. 
150 gals. 

161b. 



250 tons. 



7 inches. 
12 inches. 
28 inches. 
16 inches. 

4 ft. 8 in. 

9 ft. 1 in. 
16 ft. 4 in. 

9 ft. 6 in. 
19,000 lb. 
14,500 lb. 

4,500 lb. 
200 gals. 

16 1b. 



375 tons. 



8 inches. 
14 inches. 
30 inches. 
18 inches. 

5 ft. in. 
9 ft. 10 in. 
17 ft. 4 in. 
9 ft. 10 in. 
22,500 lb. 
17,000 lb. 

5,500 lb. 
250 gals. 

201b. 



450 tons. 



(102) 



LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 



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LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 




'* Back-Tkuck" Locomotive. 
(For Logging Railroads and Similar Service.) 

LIGHT POUR-WHSEL-CONNECTED 

LOCOMOTIVE. 



TANK 



These engines are designed for special service, con- 
tractor's w^ork, and other work where the run is not 
long, on wide or narrow gauge, where a simple design 
with power is needed without special capacity for speed. 
The 8X14 and 9X14 are useful for light work on wide 
gauge; smaller than 7X12 is rarely advisable on wide 
gauge. The 5X10 is adapted for very narrow gauges, 
and is only advisable for easy work. These engines are 
well balanced and easy in their motion, being equalized 
across at front drivers. They are adapted to sharp 
curves and heavy grades. The proper speed with load 
is 6 to 10 miles per hour. 




'.'>'i>>??w?'^^?^>''¥^^ 



LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 



105 



TABLE. 



Cylinders (^■-•- 


inches. 


6 inches. 


7 inches. 


8 inches. 


9 inches. 


10 inches. 


10 inches. 


1 2 inches. 


14 inches. 


14 inches. 


Diameter of driv- 












ing wheels . . . 


22 inches. 


23 inches. 


24 inches. 


28 inches. 


30 inches. 


Wheel-base .... 


4 ft. in. 


4 ft. in. 


4 ft. 8 in. 


5 ft. in. 


5 ft. 3 in. 


Length over all . . 


10 ft. in. 


11 ft. in 


12 ft. 7 in. 


14 ft. in. 


15 ft. 1 in. 


Extreme height 












above rail .... 


9 ft. 2 in. 


9 ft. 5 in. 


9 ft. 6 in. 


9 ft. 10 in. 


9 ft. 11 in. 


AVeightin working 












order (all on 












drivers) 


9,000 lbs. 


12,0001b. 


15,0001b. 


18,0001b. 


22,0001b. 


Capacity of saddle 












tank 


. 125 gals. 


150 gals. 


200 gals. 


250 gals. 


325 gals. 


Weight per yard 












ot lightest steel 












rail advised . . . 


14 lb. 


16 lb. 


20 1b. 


25 lbs. 


30 1b. 


Hauling ca- 












pacity on a 
level, ill tons 






















of 3,000 lb., 


175 ton^. 


275 tons. 


375 tons. 


450 tons. 


550 tons. 



SIX-WHEEL-CONNECTED 

TIVE. 



MINE LOCOMO- 




TABLE. 



c^i-^^-j^x:^^' ::::::: 

Diameter of driving wheels, 

Wheel-base 

l.ength over all, 

Extreme width on 36 inches gauge, . . 
Extreme height from rail, least advised, , 
Extreme height from rail, least possible, . 

Weight in working order, 

Capacitj'^ of saddle tank, 

Weight per yard of lightest steel rail ad- 
vised, 

Mauling capacity on a level, in 
tons of 2,000 lb., 



8 inches. 

14 inches. 
24 inches. 

5 ft. 5 in. 

1 5 ft. in. 
65 inches. 

6 ft. 6 in. 
5 ft. 6 in. 

20,0001b. 
250 gals. 

16 1b. 



475 tons. 



9 inches. 
14 inches. 
26 inches. 

5 ft. 10 in, 
16 ft. in. 

67 inches, 

6 ft. 6 in. 
5 ft. 8 in. 
25,000 lb. 
300 gals. 

20 lbs. 



600 tons. 



10 inches. 
14 inches. 
26 inches. 
7 ft. 3 in. 
17 ft. in. 
67 inches. 
6 ft. 6 in. 
5 ft. 10 in. 
29,000 lb. 
350 gals. 

25 lb. 



700 tons. 



It is possible for these six-wheel connected mine loco- 
motives to pass around curves of 30 to 50 feet radius, 
but we advise ^5 feet as shortest radius desirable. 



106 



LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 



FOUR-WHEEL-CONNECTED MINE LOCO- 
MOTIVE, (See Table, p. 107.) 




COMPRESSED-AIR LOCOMOTIVE. 

We give below some notes on this new form of loco- 
motive, of wliicli, to the best of our knowledge, H. K. 
Porter & Co., Pittsburgh, Pa., and the Baldwin Locomo- 
tive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. , are the sole manufacturers. 

Compressed-air locomotives are recommended where 
no risk of fire, however slight, can be permitted, or 
where steam locomotives would interfere with ventila- 
tion as in some mines, or where fire-damp is present. 

They are therefore recommended for use in badly ven- 
tilated mines, powder-mills, arsenals, oil refineries, cot- 
ton-mills, rope-walks, lumber-yards, etc. 

Advantages. Air locomotives are easier to run, and 
less expensive to keep in order than steam locomotives, 
since there is no fire to keep up. They are wholly free 
from steam, smoke or gas, and improve instead of vitiat- 
ing the air; being absolutely fireless they are perfectly 
safe even where fire-damp is present. (See Table, p. 108.) 

HAULING CAPACITY EXPLAINED. 

The number of tons given as hauling capacity of each 
locomotive is the total weight of the heaviest train^ includ- 
ing the weight of the cars and of their loads^ which the 
locomotives are guaranteed to haul in addition to loco- 
motive itself, on straight track in good condition. 

The regular work of a locomotive should not exceed 
one-half to two-thirds of its full capacity. Tliis allow- 
ance to provide a surplus poAver for special occasions, 
and to cover imperfections of track and rolling stock, as 
found in average practice. 

TABLE FOR COMPUTING HAULING CAPA- 
CITY ON GRADES. 

Applicable to preceding tables on light locomotives, 
which are all of the class "Saddle Tank Locomotives." 
In this table 100 per cent, stands for hauling cai)acity on a 
level. Opposite eacli grade is given tlie proper percent- 
age to denote the hauling capacity on that grade. (See 
Table, page 109,) 



LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 



107 



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LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 




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LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 



109 



TABLE 
For Saddle Tank Locomotives. 



GRADES. PERCENTAGES. 

On a level the hauling capacity is 100 per cent. 



1 
2 
3 
5 

8 
10 
15 
20 
25 

26A 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 
100 
105^ 
110 
120 
130 
132 
140 
150 
158^ 
160 
170 
180 
184^ 
190 
200 

211A 
225 

250 

264 

275 

300 

316A 

325 

350 

375 

400 

450 

500 



foot per mile, 94 

feet 



90 

86 

78 

69 

64 

54 

47 

42 

40 

37 

33 

30 

28 

26 

25 

24 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

131 

13" 

12 

11 

loi 

10 




110 LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE PRECED 

ING TABLES. 

To compute how many tons (o/2,000 lbs.) a locomotive can 

haul up a grade. 

Example : What is the hauling capacity up a grade of 
300 feet per mile of the "Light Four- Wheel- Connected 
Tank Locomotive " cylinders 9X14? Table under this 
head gives the hauling capacity on a level for this loco- 
motive 550 tons. The table for "Computing Hauling 
Capacity on Grades," gives 4^ as the percentage for a 
300 feet grade. 

Four and one-half per cent, of 550 gives (disregarding 
fractions) 25 tons as the hauling capacity. 

To select a locomotive of suitable power for any required 

work. 

Example : Add 50 to 100 per cent, to the regular work 
to be done, according to the margin of surplus power 
desired, and for allowance for imperfections of track 
cars, etc. Kefer to table for the percentage for the 
given grade. The regular work to be done, as above 
increased, will then be the percentage of the locomotive' s 
hauling capacity on a level ; and the capacity on a level 
is found by multiplying by 100, and dividing by the rate 
of percentage. When locomotive can be selected accord- 
ing to the nature of service, and the hauling capacity on 
a level as given in tables. [Many other sizes and forms 
of locomotives are made in addition to those given in 
tables above, but those selected represent class most 
used on public works.] 

Example: It is desired to haul a load of 80 tons of cars 
and lading regularly up a grade of 75 feet per mile. 
What is the smallest saddle-tank locomotive advisable ? 

Adding 50 to 100 per cent, as an average, say 75 per 
cent. = 60 tons to 80 tons gives 140 tons. 

Table gives 19 as percentage for a 75 feet grade. 

(140Xl00)-i-19= 733 tons (disregarding fractions). 

A locomotive of 733 tons capacity on a level is thus 
indicated. And by examination of tables it will be seen 
that ''Back Truck" Locomotive 10X16 inch cylinders, 
hauling capacity on level 750 tons, is best suited to this 
case. 

LOCOMOTIVES FOR CONTRACTORS' 

WORK. 

10X16 cylinders is usually smallest size of locomotive 
desirable. 

Owing to constant shifting of track, narrow gauge most 
desirable, say 24 to 30 inches. 

One locomotive, or two if haul long and grades steep, 
will keep a steam shovel busy. 



LIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. Ill 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR ORDERING. 

In ordering locomotives state following: 

1. The gauge of track (exact space in clear between 
rails). 

2. The kind of fuel. 

3. The height of the centre of car couplings above rail. 

4. The length of road, weight of rail, and radius of 
sharpest curve. 

5. The steepest grade, with its length, for loaded cars 
to go up (also the same for empty cars if they return 
empty). 

6. The number of cars to be hauled in each train, and 
the weight of each car and of its load. 

7. The total amount of freight to be carriea one way 
daily. 



IRON AND STEEL. 



Cast iron weighs on an average 450 lbs. per cubic foot. 

Wrought iron weighs on an average 480 lbs. per cubic 
foot. 

Steel weighs on an average 490 lbs. per cubic foot. 

From above we see that 

One cubic foot of wrought iron weighs 480 lbs. 

One square foot, one inch thick, weighs \y^ or 40 lbs. 

One square inch, one foot long, weighs f| or 3^ lbs. 

One square inch, one yard long, weighs SjX'S or 10 lbs. 

Therefore, in any section of wrought iron, the weight 
in pounds per yard^ is precisely equal to ten times its sec- 
tional area in square inches. 

Example : What is the weight of a bar of wrought iron 
2'^ X 4^' X 9^—0''? 

Answer: 2X4X3 (yards) Xl0 = 2401bs. 

For round wrought iron, the weight per foot may be 
found by taking the diameter in quarter inches, squaring 
it, and dividing by six. This rule not absolutely exact, 
but will do for all practical purposes. 

Example : What is the weight per foot of f inch round 
iron? 

f inch = 3 quarter inches. 3^= 9. 
I = H lbs. 

TABLE. 

Weight per foot of Flat, Square, and Bound Wrought 
Iron. This table takes 485 lbs. per cubic foot as average 
weight of hammered wrought iron; 480 pounds as taken 
above being average weight of rolled wrought iron. 



Thickness or Diameter. 


Weight of 

a Square Foot 

in Lbs. 


Weight per Foot. 


In 
Inches. 


In Decimals 
of a Foot. 


Square Bar 
in Lbs. 


Round. Bar 
in Lbs. 


1 


0.0026 
0.0052 
0.0078 
0.0104 
0.0130 
0.0156 
0.0182 
0.0208 
0.0234 
0.0260 
0.0287 
0.0313 
0.0339 
0.0365 


1.263 
2.526 
3.789 
5.052 
6.315 
7.578 
8.841 
10.10 
11.37 
12.63 
13.89 
15.16 
16.42 
17.68 


0.0033 
0.0132 
0.0296 
0.0526 
0.0823 
0.1184 
0.1612 
0.2105 
0.2665 
0.3290 
0.3980 
0.4736 
0.5558 
0.(5446 


0.0026 
0.0104 
0.0233 
0.0414 
0.0646 
0.0930 
0.1266 
0.1653 
0.2093 
0.2583 
0.3126 
0.3720 
0.4365 
0.5063 



(112) 



IRON AND STEEL. 



113 



Thickness of Diameter. 


"Weight of 
a Square Foot 

in T.hs 


Weight 


per Foot. 


In 


In Decimals 


Square Bar 


Round Bar 


Inches. 


of a Foot. 


111 ^^L/o. 


in Lbs. 


in Lbs. 


¥ 


0.0391 


18.95 


0.740 


0.5«1.S 




0.0417 


20.21 


0.842 


0.6613 


A 


0.0469 


22.73 


1.066 


0.837 


^ 


0.0521 


25.26 


1.316 


1.033 


# 


0.0573 


27.79 


1.592 


1.250 


0.0625 


30.31 


1.895 


1.488 


f 


0.0677 


32.84 


2.223 


1.746 


0.0729 


35.37 


2.579 


2.025 


It 


0.0781 


37.89 


2.960 


2.325 


1 


0.0833 


40.42 


3.368 


2.645 


^8 


0.0885 


42.94 


3.803 


2.986 


0.0938 


45.47 


4.263 


3.348 


1 ^^ 


0.0990 


48.00 


4.750 


3.730 


0.1042 


50.52 


5.263 


4.133 


If 


0.1094 


53.05 


5.802 


4.557 


0.1146 


55.57 


6.368 


5.001 


!f 


0.1198 


58.10 


6.960 


5.466 


0.1250 


60.63 


7.578 


5.952 


It 


0.1354 


65.68 


8.893 


6.985 


li 


0.1458 


70.73 


10.31 


8.101 


ij 


0.1563 


75.78 


11.84 


9.300 


2 


0.1667 


80.83 


13.47 


10.580 


2i 


0.1771 


85.89 


15.21 


11.950 


2i 


0.1875 


90.94 


17.05 


13.390 


21 


0.1979 


95.99 


19.00 


14.920 


-^2 


0.2083 


101.0 


21.05 


16.530 


21 


0.2188 


106.1 


23.21 


18.230 


21 


0.2292 


111.2 


25.47 


20.010 


2| 


0.2396 


116.2 


27.84 


21.870 


3 


0.2500 


121.3 


30.31 


23.810 


3J 


0.2604 


126.3 


32.89 


25.830 


sl 


0.2708 


131.4 


35.57 


27.940 


1 


0.2813 


136.4 


38.37 


30.130 


0.2917 


141.5 


41.26 


32.410 


3f 


0.3021 


146.5 


44.26 


34.760 


3f 


0.3125 


151.6 


47.37 


37.200 


3| 


0.3229 


156.6 


50.57 


39.72 


4 


0.3333 


161.7 


53.89 


42.33 


4i 


0.3438 


166.7 


57.31 


45.01 


4| 


0.3542 


171.8 


60.84 


47.78 


41 


0.3646 


176.8 


64.47 


50.63 


H 


0.3750 


181.9 


68.20 


53.57 


41 


0.3854 


186.9 


72.05 


56.59 


41 


0.3958 


192.0 


75.99 


59.69 


4J 


0.4063 


197.0 


80.05 


62.87 


5 


0.4167 


202.1 


84.20 


66.13 


5i 


0.4271 


207.1 


88.47 


69.48 


5| 


0.4375 


212.2 


92.83 


72.91 


5f 


0.4479 


217.2 


97.31 


76.43 


5* 


0.4583 


222.3 


101.9 


80.02 


5| 


0.4688 


227.3 


106.6 


83.70 


5| 

4 


0.4792 


232.4 


111.4 


87.46 


0.4896 


237.5 


116.3 


91.31 


6 


0.5000 


242.5 


121.3 


95.23 



114 



IRON* AKD STEEL. 



The preceding tt^hle can be used for steel by adding about 
one per cent, to weights of wrought iron as given in table. 

The preceding table can also be used approximately ; for 
copper add ^ part; lead, multiply by 1.47; Brass, multi- 
ply by 1.06; Zinc, multiply by 0.9; Tin, multiply by 0.95. 

UNITED STATES STANDARD SIZES SQUARE 
AND HEXAGON NUTS. 

Number of Each Size in 100 Lbs, 



Size of 
Bolt. 



2 
8 



■^8 
li 
1§ 
li 

l| 

2 

2* 
2i 
21 
2* 
2| 
3 



Size of Nut. 



Width. 



1 

2 



8 

Ife 

li 

ll^ 

n 

lit 

2 

2A 

2§ 

If 



3A 
3* 



3H 
3j 



Thick- 
ness. 



t 

5 



14 
li 
IS 
14 
If 

i| 
li 

2 

24 

2i 

2f 

2* 

21 
3 



Square. 



No. in 
100 lbs. 



7400 

4000 

2730 

1700 

1160 

900 

653 

386 

260 

170 

122 

90 

69 

54 

43 

35 

29 

24 

20 

17 

14 

12 

10 



Weight 
each in lbs 



.013 
.025 
.036 
.058 
.086 
.111 
.153 
.259 
.384 
.588 
.819 
1.111 
1.44 
1.85 
2.32 
2.85 
3.44 
4.16 
5.00 
5.88 
7.14 
8.33 
10.00 
12.50 



Hexagon. 



No. in 
100 lbs. 



8880 

4800 

3276 

2040 

1392 

1080 

784 

463 

312 

204 

146 

108 

83 

65 

52 

42 

35 

30 

26 

22 

19 

16 

13 

10 



Weight 
each in lbs. 



.011 
.020 
.030 
.050 
.071 
.092 
.127 
.215 
.320 
.490 
.684 
.925 
1.20 
1.53 
1.92 
2.38 
2.85 
3.33 
3.84 
4.54 
5.26 
6.25 
7.69 
10.00 



STANDARD SIZES OP WASHERS. 

Number in 100 Pounds. 



Diameter. 

Inch. 
5 



Size of Hole. 



Thickness 
Wire Gauge. 



No. 

16 

16 

14 

11 

11 

11 

11 

10 

8 

8 

7 

6 



Size of Bolt. 



Inch. 

2 

1 

li 

li 



Number in 
100 Lbs. 



29300 

18000 

7600 

3300 

2180 

2350 

1680 

1140 

580 

470 

360 

360 



IRON AND STEEL. 



115 



BOLTS. 

With Square Heads and Nuts. 

Weight of 100 of the Enwnerated Sizes. 



Lengths. 


















Inch. 


^ in. 


3^ in. 


Kin. 


39.31 


Kin. 


%in. 


1 in. 


l>^in. 


14 


4.16 


10.62 


23.87 


_ 


_ 


— 


_ 


l| 


4.22 


11.72 


25.06 


41.38 


- 


- 


- 




2 


4.75 


12.38 


26.44 


45.69 


73.62 


- 


- 


- 


2i 


5.34 


12.90 


28.62 


49.50 


76. 


- 


- 


- 


24 

2i 


5.97 


14.69 


29.50 


51.25 


79.75 


- 


- 


- 


6.50 


16.47 


31.16 


53. 


83. 


- 


- 


— 


3 


- 


17.87 


32.44 


56. 


85,38 


127.25 


- 


- 


3i 


— 


18.94 


39.75 


63.12 


93.44 


140.56 


— 


- 


4 


— 


20.59 


42.50 


74.87 


108.12 


148.37 


228. 


296. 


44 


— 


21.69 


44.87 


79.62 


113.12 


158.76 


239. 


310. 


5 


— 


23.62 


48.81 


83. 


122. 


167.25 


250. 


324. 


5J 


— 


25.81 


51.38 


87.88 


128.62 


174.88 


261. 


338. 


6 


— 


26.87 


53.31 


92.38 


131.75 


204.25 


272. 


352. 


6i 


— 


- 


56.87 


96.88 


139.56 


214.69 


283. 


366. 


7 


— 


— 


59.12 


99.87 


145.50 


228.44 


294. 


370. 


74 


- 


— 


61.87 


105.75 


150.88 


235.31 


305.. 


384. 


8 


— 


— 


64.44 


109.50 


157.12 


239.88 


316. 


398. 


9 


- 


- 


70.50 


118.12 


169.62 


258.12 


338. 


426. 


10 


— 


— 


77. 


128.13 


184. 


276.18 


360. 


454. 


11 


- 


— 


82.88 


136.19 


195.13 


295.69 


382. 


482. 


12 


- 


— 


86.37 


144.87 


209.75 


311.94 


404. 


510. 


13 


— 


— 


92. 


155.50 


219.37 


335.81 


426. 


538. 


14 


- 


— 


97.75 


163.58 


237.50 


351.88 


448. 


566. 


15 


- 


- 


103.25 


170.75 


249.06 


391.75 


470. 


594. 



WOEKING PROPORTIOTNTS FOR CONTINU- 
OUS SHAFTING. 

[Pencoyd Iron Works,'] 

Wrought Iron and Steel. 

Transmitting power, but subject to no bending action 
except its own weight. 





Max. Safe 
Torsional 
Moment, in 
Inch- 
Pounds. 


Revolutions per Minute. 


Max. Dis- 
tance in 
feet be- 
tween bear- 
ings. 


of Shaft in 
Inches. 


100 


150 


200 
H. P. 




H. P. 


H. P. 


14 


5940 


6 


10 


14 


11.7 


If 


7552 


9 


13 


17 


12.4 


If 


9432 


11 


16 


21 


13.0 


11602 


13 


20 


26 


13.6 


2 


14080 


16 


24 


32 


14.2 


2* 


16892 


19 


29 


38 


14.8 


2i 


20048 


23 


34 


46 


15.4 


i 


23580 


27 


40 


54 


16.0 


27500 


31 


47 


63 


16.5 


2I 


36603 


42 


62 


83 


17.6 


3 


47520 


54 


81 


108 


18.6 


3J 


60417 


69 


103 


137 


19.7 


3i 


75460 


86 


129 


172 


20.7 


Sf 


92812 


105 


158 


211 


21.6 


4 


112640 


128 


192 


256 


22.6 



116 



IRON AND STEEL. 



Transmitting power, and subject to bending action of 
pulleys, belting, etc. 



Diameter 

of Shaft in 

Inches. 


Max. Safe 
Torsional 
Moment, in 
Inch- 
Pounds. 


Kevolutions per Minute. 


Max. Dis- 


100 


150 


200 
H. P. 


tance in 
feet be- 
tween bear- 
ings. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


li 

^ 

ij 

2 

2i 

2-8- 

4 

3 

3i 

31 
4 


5940 

7552 

9432 

11602 

14080 

16892 

20048 

23580 

27500 

36603 

47520 

60417 

75460 

92812 

112640 


5 

6 

8 

9 

11 

14 

16 

19 

22 

24 

39 

49 

61 

75 

91 


7 

9 

11 

14 

17 

21 

24 

29 

33 

36 

58 

74 

92 

113 

137 


10 
12 
15 
19 
23 
27 
33 
38 
45 
48 
77 
98 
123 
151 
183 


6.8 

7.2 

7.5 

7.9 

8.2 

8.6 

8.9 

9.2 

9.6 

10.2 

10.8 

11.4 

12.0 

12.5 

13.1 



IRON AND STEEL BEAMS. 

The manufacture of Iron and Steel Beams and Structural 
Iron has reached such a high degree of development, that 
for thorough information we would refer those interested 
in this subject to the following leading manufacturers: 
Edgemoor Bridge Works, Edgemoor, Delaware; Pencoyd 
Iron Works, Philadelphia, Pa. ; Phoenix Iron Co., Phila- 
delphia, Pa. ; New Jersey Steel and Iron Co. , Trenton, 
N. J.; Carnegie, Phipps & Co., Limited, Pittsburgh, 
Pa.; Chicago Bridge and Iron Co., Chicago, Illinois. 

The following remarks are important: 

The deepest beam which it is possible to use is always 
most economical, as a lighter beam will carry same 
weight, and the deeper the beam the greater the stiff- 
ness. 

Girders formed of ^vooden beams with iron beams, or 
plates fastened between them^ will not support a load equal 
to the sum of the safe loads of the wooden and iron beams 
separately; because the wooden beams under their safe 
load deflect rather more than double the amount of the 
iron beams or plates of the same depth under their safe 
load; hence, when bolted together so that the deflection 
of both is equal to the deflection of the iron, only half 
the strength of the wooden beams comes into play. 



IRON AND STEEL. 



117 



PHtENTX IRON BEAMS. 







CO 


CO 


73 

03 


CO rr 

be 


00 


to 




'iu* 


oj 




c 




c 
>— 1 











a 
c 
.2 


C -fj 


a 

02 

o 
d 


o 

c 

-♦-> 

ft 

m 

»— I 


be 

G 

o 



CO 

OQ 

0) 

C 


P. 
to 

B 

bo 




II 

.5^ 


*^ c a 




lis 






7 


'(-I 

H 




f 

h5 


^g 





4 


"^ 


158 


20 


.65 


270 


726 


14i 


24 


40 


159 


20 


6i 


.50 


200 


528 


121 


22 


4 


40 


160 


15 


5A 
5| 


.90 


240 


463 


114 


14 


3 


33 


1 


15 


.65 


200 


410 


11 


14 


3 


33 


89 


15 


4i 


.50 


150 


302 


92 


13 


3 


33 


138 


15 


^1 


.42 


125 


248 


94 


13 


3 


33 


55 


12 


54 


.59 


170 


292 


Hi 


11 


2h 


26 


57 


12 


4 


.49 


125 


208 


92 


10 


2h 


26 


139 


12 


44 


.38 


96 


156 


9i 


10 


24 


26 


114 


10^ 


5 


.50 


135 


178 


lOi 


10 


2 


20 


58 


lot 


4i 


.44 


105 


155 


9i 


9 


2 


20 


131 


1().V 


^t 


.38 


90 


133 


9 


9 


2 


20 


4 


9^ 


si 


.60 


150 


197 


11 


10 


2 


17 


5 


9 


4 


.40 


84 


108 


8? 


8 


2 


17 


6 


9 


34 


.31 


70 


92 


7i 


7 


2 


17 


113 


8 


4i 


.38 


81 


94 


9i 


6 


14 


17 


59 


8 


4 


.35 


65 


74 


8i 


5 


14 


17 


112 


7 


4 


.38 


69 


72 


8r 


5 


1^ 


11 


7 


7 


34 


.35 


55 


54 


Ir: 


4 


14 


11 


111 


6 


34 


.31 


50 


45 


7:: 


4 


li 


9 


8 


6 


2| 


.25 


40 


35 


5S 


3 


It 


9 


106 


5 


3 


.30 


36 


25 


6- 


3 


14 


9 


105 


5 


2f 


.25 


30 


21 


5| 


3 


li 


9 


65 


4 


2i 


.25 


30 


18 


5S 


3 


1 


8 


100 


4 


2 


.20 


18 


10 


4i 


2 


1 


8 



To obtain the safe load in tons of 2,000 lbs., divide the 
coefficient by the length of span in feet. 

PHCEIS'IX IROIS' CO. GIYE FOLLOWING RULES: 

Floors and Loading, — Dead load of a fire-proof 
floor, made of rolled beams and four-inch brick arches, 
filled above with concrete, may be taken at 70 lbs. per 
square foot, and the live load for dwellings or offices 
may be assumed at 70 lbs. additional, giving total of 140 
lbs. per square foot. 

For ordinary conditions the following may be assumed 
as a safe approximation per square foot : 

Dwellings or office buildings, . . 140 lbs. 
Public halls or churches, . . . 175 " 
Warehouses, .... 150 to 400 '* 

Rolled Beams. — The tables for iron and steel beams 
specify the maximum safe loads uniformly distributed 
assuming fibre strains of 12,000 lbs. per square inch for 



118 



IRON AND STEEL. 



iron, and 16,000 lbs. per square inch for steel. These 
strains entirely safe for quiescent loads. For vibratory 
loading, as in bridge floors, take three- fourths of loading 
as given by tables. If load concentrated at centre of 
beam, take one-half of loading as given by tables. 

Spacing. — To find distance, centre to centre, at v^hich 
to place beams, w^hen the span and load per square foot 
are given. The total load for each beam may be repre- 
sented by the expression: 



W = PXLXB whence B 



W 



rxL 



vrhere P = lbs. per square foot, L = span in feet, B = 
distance in feet between centres. 

Example : A floor of 18 feet span is to carry, when 
loaded, 140 lbs. per square foot. Then PXL=140X 
18 = 2,520 lbs., or 1.26 tons. Find from tables the safe 
load for beams of that space, say for 9 inch, 84 lb. iron 
beams. 

Coefficient = 108. W = 108 — 18 = 6 tons. 

Then B = — = 4.76 feet centre to centre. 

1.26 







PHCENIX 


STEEL BEAMS. 










VI 




-d 


1 «r a 


w 


03 




1 r« 


xn 

o 

6 
"A 


DO 

M 


O) 

o 

H-l 

be 
o 


O 

o 

xn 

CO 

o 

2 

H 


a 
>^ 

a> 
tn 

B 

,G 

.be 

"53 

225 


Coefficient for Building 

8 Tons per Square 
Inch of Effective Sectio 


'6 

II 


Weight of One Set 
Jj of Separators and Bolt 
for Minimum Width. 


a 
a 
o 

0) 

u 


Weightof One Set of 

Angle l*>riickets, Bolti 

and Kivets. 


161 


15 


61 


.62 


538 


13'' 


3 


33 


1()2 


15 


6* 


.50 


180 


460 


12i'' 


16 


3 


33 


i():3 


15 


5i 


.45 


150 


376 


111" 


15 


3 


33 


164 


15 


5i 


.40 


123 


301 


Hi'' 


15 


3 


33 


165 


12 


4 


.39 


120 


250 


iir 


12 




26 


166 


12 


5i 


.35 


96 


197 


lOf" 


12 


26 


167 


lOJ 


5 


.35 


99 


184 


lOi" 


10 


2 


20 


168 


104 


41 


.30 


76i 


142 


9|" 


10 


2 


20 


169 


9 


4S 


.31 


81 


131 


9J" 


9 


2 


17 


170 


9 


%■ 


.27 


63 


100 


9^'^ 


9 


2 


17 


171 


8 


.27 


66 


95 


9i" 


6 


1| 


17 


172 


8 


4i 


.25 


54 


77 


8|" 


6 


1^ 

1*2 


17 


173 


7 


4i 


.27 


60 


71 


sr 


5 


11 


174 


7 


4 


.23 


46^ 


57 


H" 


5 


J^i 


11 


175 


6 


3^ 


.26 


48 


50 


74" 


4 


li 


9 


176 


6 


34 


.23 


39 


41 


7i" 


4 


l| 


9 


177 


5 


3^ 


.26 


39 


33 


6.V' 


3 


li 


9 


178 


5 


3 


.22 


30 


26 


6.f' 


3 


li 


9 


179 


4 


n 


.24 


30 


20 


5i^'^ 


3 




8 



To obtain the safe load in tons of 2,000 lbs., divide the 
coefficient by the length of span in feet. 



PIPE. 



CAST-IRON PIPE. 

All pipe should be cast vertically in dry sand, bell end 
down, 3 to 12-incli pipe lengths of 12 ft. , all larger sizes 
in lengths of 12 feet 4 ins., including bell — which lay 12 
feet. 

Pipe castings include the cross, i bend, J bend and 
curves of other radii, also sleive, i sleive, reduces, tee, 
seat bend and other forms in all sizes of pipe. 

Cast-iron Culvert Pipe makes one of the cheapest and 
most desirable drains. Gas and water pipes having some 
slight flaws which unfit them for pressure pipes, are 
largely used for culvert purposes on railroads, for road 
culverts, and also for sewers and drains. 

The best practice is to dig a ditch in which a bed of 
broken stones or concrete is laid to receive the pipe. In 
laying pipe the broken stone or concrete should be 
brought up around the pipe, say half way up the sides. 
The bed of broken stone or concrete should be well 
rammed both under and around the pipe — by thus mak- 
ing a solid foundation, settlement, breaking and leakage 
are avoided. 

At the exposed ends of pipe culvert, small rubble head 
walls should be built, say one foot above the top of the 
pipe, and of such length as the size of pipe demands to 
keep the bank from running around the ends and stop- 
ping up openings of culvert. Thickness of wall 9 to 18 
inches, varying with size of pipe. These end walls act as 
aprons to cut off water from passing around outside the 
pipe, and should extend at least 3 feet below the bottom 
of pipe, unless founded on solid rock. A grade of 1 
inch in 10 feet clears pipe of all detritus. 

The following table of size, weights, etc., of water- 
pipe made by "National Foundry and Pipe Works," 
Pittsburgh, Pa., is a standard of good practice. 

(119) 



120 



PIPE. 



CAST-IRON WATER PIPE. 




Diameter in Indies. 


Thickness in Inches. 


Weight per Foot in 
rounds. 




3 


M 


17 


• 


4 


M 


22 


W 


6 


U 


33 




8 


ek 


43 


O 


10 


41 


65 


Q 


12 


U 


85 




14 


^ 


113 


16 




132 


^ 


20 


193 


h5 


24 


1 


264 


<1 


30 




372 




36 


490 





These Weights can be changed to suit customers. 
Each Pipe lays 12 feet, or 440 lengths per mile. 

TERKA-COTTA PIPE. 

"Blackmer and Post Pipe Co.," of St. Louis, Mo., 
make an excellent vitrified and salt glazed double thick- 
ness culvert pipe, in 2^ feet sections (net), with extra 
long socket, and running from 12 to 30 inches inner dia- 
meter. This pipe is cheaper than cast-iron, and when 
laid as directed above for cast-iron pipe, makes a thor- 
oughly durable drain. 

All Calvert Pipe should be laid with the top of pipe at 
least 3 feet below sub-grade on railroads, and 2 feet be- 
low grade on highways. 

The firm above noted issue an excellent catalogue 
which it would well repay those interested in this sub- 
ject to read. 



CAPACITY OP 


DEAm PIPE. 


'Salt glazed.] 




Gallons per Minute. 


Size of Pipe 
in inches. 


'go 
•7^ 


,-1 gj 

OO 

r-. I— 1 


r-; (U 

^^ 
rdO 
OO 

(3rH 


^'^ 

^O 
OO 


"IS 05 

.r3 i-i 


r-H 4-1 
r-^ O 

l2 


*-> 
^« 

-mO 
O O 


^< (D 






CO ^ 


p. 


p, 


ft 


00 u 

r-i O 


ft 


"1 


3 


21 


30 


42 


52 


60 


74 


85 


104 


4 


36 


52 


76 


92 


108 


132 


148 


184 


6 


84 


120 


169 


206 


240 


294 


338 


414 


9 


232 


330 


470 


570 


660 


810 


930 


1140 


12 


470 


680 


960 


1160 


1360 


1670 


1920 


2350 


15 


830 


1180 


1680 


2040 


2370 


2920 


33^0 


4100 


18 


1300 


1850 


2630 


3200 


3740 


4600 


5270 


6470 


20 


1760 


2450 


3450 


4180 


4860 


5980 


6850 


8410 



PIPE. 121 

The maximum rainfall, as shown by statistics, is 
about an inch per hour (except during very heavy 
storms), equal to 22,633 gallons per hour for each acre, 
or 377 gallons per minute per acre. 

Owing to various obstructions, not more than fifty to 
seventy-five per cent, of the rainfall w ill reach the drain 
within the same hour; an allow^ance should be made for 
this fact in determining size of pipe required. 

TO PROTECT STEAM PIPES AND RETAIN 
HEAT WHERE STEAM IS TO BE CON- 
VEYED LONG DISTANCES. 

[By Mr. Geo, Patterson, Supt. Brandy wine Granite Co.j 

Wilmington, Del.] 

Take 3 buckets of sand, 1 bucket of flour and a pint 
of molasses, mix with enough water to make it into a 
paste, put it on the pipes (w^hile the steam is in) with 
the hands. Do about 100 feet at a time. After the first 
100 feet is on put on a second coat of the following : 
Mix in a mortar-box about half a dozen buckets of fine 
sawdust with a little plaster of paris, say 1 bucket and 
enough water to make it flow freely, then take it in a 
bucket to where the man is who puts it on the pipe. 
For every bucket of this paste, mix in a box from a 
quarter to a half a bucket more of plaster of paris. Mix 
a little at a time, about a fire-shovel full and cover over 
the first coat about one-quarter inch thick ; then after the 
second coat has been on the 100 feet, wrap with wire 
[about one inch spiral], and repeat with third coat, then 
^\H\ fourth, both same as second. Aiter fourth coat is on 
pipe the covering should be about as thick as flanges of 
pipe. Then cover with a coating of tar and asphaltum. 
Then put on a cover of thin sheet-iron — stove-pipe-iron 
painted. 

Summary. — First coat, 3 buckets sand, 1 bucket flour, 
1 pint molasses. Second, third and fourth coats, one- 
half plaster of paris, one-half saw-dust. 

In ordering pipes, give the ''nominal" inner diameter. 
It is merely an arbitrary name for the eighth-inch has 
an " actual " inner diameter of full quarter-inch. 



IRON WIRE. 



TABLE 



Shoiving Size, Weight and Strength of Charcoal Iron Wire. 
Trenton Iron Co.''s List. 



No. 


a o 
.450 


Lineal 

Feet to the 

Pound. 


Tensile 

Strength, 

Pounds. 


No. 
11 


.1175 


Lineal 

Feet to the 

Pound. 


CO 

1011 


No. 
26 


o Diameter. 
00 Inches. 


Lineal 

Feet to the 

Pound. 


00000 


1.863 


12598 


27.340 


1164.7 


0000 


.400 


2.358 


9955 


12 


.105 


34.219 


810 


27 


.017 


1305.7 


000 


.360 


2.911 


8124 


13 


.0925 


44.092 


631 


28 


.016 


1476.9 


00 


.330 


3.465 


6880 


14 


.080 


58.916 


474 


29 


.015 


1677.0 





.305 


4.057 


5926 


15 


.070 


76.984 


372 


30 


.014 


1925.3 


1 


.285 


4.645 


5226 


16 


.061 


101.488 


292 


31 


.013 


2232.7 


2 


.265 


5.374 


4570 


17 


.0525 


137.174 


222 


32 


.012 


2620.6 


3 


.245 


6.286 


3948 


18 


.045 


186.335 


169 


33 


.011 


3119.1 


4 


.225 


7.454 


3374 


19 


.040 


235.084 


137 


34 


.010 


3773.6 


5 


.205 


8.976 


2839 


20 


.035 


308.079 


107 


35 


.0095 


4182.5 


6 


.190 


10.453 


2476 


21 


.031 


392.772 


- 


36 


.009 


4657.7 


7 


.175 


12.322 


2136 


22 


.028 


481.234 


- 


37 


.0085 


5222.0 


8 


.160 


14.736 


1813 


23 


.025 


603.863 


- 


38 


.008 


5896.1 


9 


.145 


17.950 


1507 


24 


.0225 


745.710 


- 


39 


.0075 


6724.3 


10 


.130 


22.333 


1233 


25 


.020 


943.396 


— 


40 


.007 


7698.3 



The numbers in the first column are those of the Tren- 
ton Iron Co.'s Gauge. 

The tensile strength as given is the actual breaking 
weight of bright market wire (not annealed). Annealing 
renders wire more pliable but less elastic, and reduces 
its strength about 20 or 25 per cent. Galvanizing re- 
duces the tensile strength about 10 per cent., while tin- 
ning and coppering exert no apparent influence upon the 
metal. U»annealed or hard brass wire has about three- 
fourths the strengths of the above table, and about one- 
ninth more weight. 

Hard copper wire may be taken at two-thirds of the 
tabular strengths, and full one seventh more weight. 

(122) 



ROPES, CABLES AND HAWSERS. 



Wire Ropes. — We give tables and general information 
on Iron and Cast- Steel Ropes, as made by John A. Roeb- 
ling's Sons Co., Trenton, New Jersey. 

The wire ropes of John A. Roebling's Sons Co. have 
been made the standard by the United States Navy De- 
partment. 

Prices as given are the card prices, 1892, and are sub- 
ject to trade discounts. 

[List, February 8, 1892.] 

STANDARD HOISTING ROPE. 

With 19 Wires to the Strand. 
IRON. 



X5 


o 


s^ 




Foot 

lope 

Cen. 




king 
IS of 

s. 


ice of 

lla 




a 
'A 

o 
a 


o . 


« 

B 
a 


a « 

3'"' 




3^- . 

c «£ 
^1 


opa 


5O ^ Vh bp 


— 03 

en a; 




04 






53 j-^ 






•=^^ 



5^ 


1 


122 


2J 


6J 


8.00 


74 


15 


14 


13 


2 


96 


2 


6 


6.30 


65 


13 


13 


12 


3 


84 


li 


54 


5.25 


54 


11 


12 


10 


4 


68 


If 


5 


4.10 


44 


9 


11 


84 


5 


62 


14 


4| 


3.65 


39 


8 


10 


74 


54 


52 


li 


41 


3.00 


33 


64 


94 


7 


6 


44 


li 


4 


2.50 


27 


54 


84 


64 


7 


36 


Is 


34 


2.00 


20 


4 


74 


6 


8 


29 


1 


H 


1.58 


16 


3 


64 


5i 


9 


23 


7 


21 


1.20 


11.50 


24 


4 


44 


10 


18 


k 


2i 


0.88 


8.64 


IS 


4 


lOi 


15 


8 


2 


0.60 


5.13 


1 


3i 


34 


104 


12i 


1^ 


If 
l| 


0.44 


4.27 


34 


2i 


lOf 


10 


1 
2 


0.35 


3.48 


2 


3 


2i 


10a 


94 


A 


li 


0.29 


3.00 


f 


21 


2 


lOj 


9 


3 


n 


0.26 


2.50 


1 


24 


14 



Tiller Rope, ^-incli diameter. 26 cents per foot; ^-incli diameter, 20 cents 
per foot; 3^- inch diameter, 15 cents per foot; ^g-inch in diameter, 11 cents 
per foot. 

(123) 



124 



WIRE ROPES. 



CAST-STEEL. 



1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
lOi 
104 
lOf 
10a 
lOi 



152 


2i 


61 


8.00 


155 


31 


_ 


120 


2 


6 


6.30 


125 


25 


— 


100 


If 


5* 


5.25 


106 


21 


— 


80 


!l 


5 


4.10 


86 


17 


15 


71 


4| 


3.65 


77 


15 


14 


60 


If 


4i 


3.00 


63 


12 


13 


50 


u 


4 


2.50 


52 


10 


12 


41 


u 


3* 


2.00 


42 


8 


11 


34 


1 


H 


1.58 


33 


6 


94 

84 


27 


1 


2| 


1.20 


25 


5 


21 


1 


2J 


0.88 


18 


34 


7 


17 


1 


2 


0.60 


12 


24 


5| 


15 


1^ 


If 


0.44 


9 


14 


5 


13 


1 

2 


0.35 


7 


1 


44 


12h 


T^ 


It 


0.29 


5^ 


s 


31 


12 


f 


0.26 


44 


1 

2 


34 



8i 
8 

7J 
6i 
5f 

54 
5 
4i 
4 

3i 
3 

2i 

1 



Bessemer and Siemens-Martin Steel Ropes at same prices as Iron Ropes. 
JVote — Wiien made with wire centre tlie price per foot is 10 per cent, extra. 

The preceding table shows the kind of rope in common 
use. It is made of six strands of 19 wires each, laid 
around a hemp heart. 

In substituting steel ropes for iron rope the object 
should be to gain an increase wear from the rope, rather 
than to reduce the size. 

Tiller ropes are used for steering ropes on river steam- 
ers, hand ropes on elevators, and in any place where a 
smooth and flexible rope is required. 



TRANSMISSION AND STANDING ROPE. 

With 7 Wires to the Strand. 
IRON. 



u 



11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 



o 
o . 

u G 

^'^ 

Oh 



57 

48 

41 

33 

27 

21 

16 

14 

12 
9 
74 
64 
02 

44 



o 

'6 



*8 

3| 
31 
3 

2| 

1 

^8 

IS 

u 
n 
1 

7 

H 



■«-> ^ 
O oi S 



3.37 
2.77 
2.28 
1.82 
1.50 
1.12 
0.88 
0.70 
0.57 
0.41 
0.31 
0.23 
0.19 
0.16 
0.125 



.S§ 



o 

o 






- t» 



36 
30 
25 
20 
16 
12.3 
8.8 
7.6 
5.8 
4.1 
2.83 
2.13 
1.65 
1.38 
1.03 



c o 
o oS 

ft^(M 
O s3 
u O 



74 

6i 
5 
4 
3 

2i 
2 

14 
1 



or;:: s . 



10 
9 

?i 

51 
4J 

44 
4 

3i 
2| 

2i 

2 



sen 



!^ 



13 
12 

loi 

6 

51 

45 
4 

2I 
24 
2i 



WIRE ROPES. 



125 



CAST-STEEL. 



11 


70 


ih 


4| 


3.37 


62 


13 


13 


8* 


12 


60 


If 

H 


4i 


2.77 


52 


10 


12 


8 


13 


50 


H 


2.28 


44 


9 


11 


7i 


14 


40 


1* 


3f 


1.82 


36 


74 


10 


6i 


15 


32 


1 


3 


1.52 


30 


6 


9 


5S 


16 


25 


X 


2t 


1.12 


22 


4i 


8 


5 


17 


19 


1 


21 


0.88 


17 


3* 


7 


4* 


18 


16 


H 


2i 


0.70 


14 


3 


6 


4 


19 


14 


5 

8 


15 


0.57 


11 


2J 


5i 


3* 


20 


11 


A 




0.41 


8 


IS 


4 


3 


21 


9 


X 

2 


i| 


0.31 


6 


li 


4 


24 


22 


n, 




li 


0.23 


44 


li 


3i 


2i 


23 


6 


1 


-'-8 


0.19 


4 


1 


3i 


2 


24 


5 


^ 




0.16 


3 


S 


2| 


IS 


25 


4 


A 


i 


0.125 


2 




2i 


li 



Bessemer and Siemens-Martin Steel Ropes at same prices as Iron Hopes. 
Note. — When made with wire centre the price per foot is 10 per cent, extra. 

In the preceding table the rope is composed of six 
strands of seven wires each, laid around a hemp heart. 
This rope is much stiffer than " Standard Hoisting Rope," 
and is more suitable for standing rope, guys and rigging. 

The wires being fewer in the strand are coarser and 
better adapted to resist the rough work of a mine than 
the fine wire of the more pliable rope. 



STEEL PLAT ROPES. 



Width and 
Tliickness 
in Inches. 


Weight 

per Foot 

in Lbs. 


Strength 
in Lbs. 


Width and 
Thickness 
in Inches. 


Weight 

per Foot 

in Lbs. 


Strength 
in Lbs. 


gX2 

§X24 

8X3 

fX3i 

iX4 

|X4i 

1X5 

iX5i 


1.19 
1.86 
2.00 
2.50 
2.86 
3.12 
3.40 
3.90 


35,700 
55,800 
60,000 
75,000 
85,800 
93,600 
100,000 
110,000 


4X3 

4X34 

4X4 

4X44 

4X5 

4X54 

1X6 
4X7 


2.38 
2.97 
3.30 
4.00 
4.27 
4.82 
5.10 
5.90 


71,400 
89,000 
99,000 
120,000 
128,000 
144,600 
153,000 
177,000 



Steel Wire Flat Ropes are composed of a number of 
strands, alternately twisted to right and left, laid along 
side of each other and sewed together with soft iron 
wires. These ropes are used at times in place of round 
ropes in shafts of mines. They wind upon themselves 
on a narrow winding drum, which takes up less room 
than one necessary for a round rope. 

The soft iron sewing wears out sooner than the steel 
strands, and then it becomes necessary to sew the rope 
with new iron wires. 



126 



WIRE ROPES. 



GALVANIZED IRON WIRE ROPE. 

For Ships' Rigging and Guys for Derricks. 
CHARCOAL ROPE. 



o 

s * 

5_ ._ 



5^ 
5i 



4i 
4 
3i 
34 

3 

n 

24 
2i 



AS 

n 
i| 
14 
1 

7 



O) OJ K 



Hi 

Hi 

111 
iH 
Hi 
Hi 
Hi 

lU 

111 

12 
12 
12 

12^ 
13"^ 
14 

15i 
17 

18i 

19 

19i 

25 

31 

38 

48 






12 
12 

12i 
121 
121 
12| 
121 

m 

13 
13 
13 



•G O 



<v 
p. 



264 

244 

22 

21 

19 

164 
14i 
12J 
10| 

94 
8 

54 
44 
34 
24 
2 

IS 

li 

7 



^ ft 



11 

104 

10 

94 
9 

84 
8 

4 

6 

5i 

5i 



3 

24 

24 
2J 

IS 

li 
li 



M so 
«•- o 

CO 



43 
40 
35 
33 
30 
26 
23 
20 
16 
14 
12 
10 
9 
8 
7 



24 
2| 
2 
1 



The preceding table gives a rope which has the follow- 
ing advantages over a maiiilla rope: Durability; will not 
stretch or give, under a strain to anything like the 
extent of manilla rope; reduction of size and weight, 
the bulk of wire rigging being one-sixth, and the weight 
one- half that of a manilla rigging of equal strength. 

NOTES ON THE USE OF WIRE ROPE. 

Two kinds of wire rope are manufactured. The most 
Xjliable variety contains nineteen wires in the strand, and 
is generally used for hoisting and running rope. The 
ropes with twelve wires and seven wires in the strand 
are stiffer, and are better adapted for standing rope, 
guys and rigging. 

For safe working load, allow one-fifth to one-seventh 
of the ultimate strength, according to speed, so as to get 
good wear from the rope. When substituting wire rope 
for hemp rope, it is good economy to allow for the former 



WIRE ROPES. 127 

the same weight per foot which experience has approved 
for the latter. 

The greater the diameter of the sheaves, pulleys or 
drums, the longer wire rope will last. In the construction 
of machinery for wire rope, it will be found good econ- 
omy to make the drums and sheaves as large as possible. 
The minimum size of drum is given in a column in the 
table. 

Experience has demonstrated that the wear increases 
with the speed. It is, therefore, better to increase the 
load than the speed. 

Wire rope is manufactured either with a wire or a 
hemp centre. The latter is more pliable than the former, 
and will wear better where there is short bending. 

Wire rope must not be coiled or uncoiled like hemp rope. 
When mounted on a reel, the latter should be mounted 
on a spindle or flat turn-table to pay oif the rope. When 
forwarded in a small coil, without reel, roll it over the 
ground like a wheel, and run off the rope in that way. 
All untwisting or kinking must be avoided. 

To preserve wire rope, apply raw linseed oil with a 
piece of sheep-skin, wool inside; or mix the oil with 
equal parts of Spanish brown or lamp-black. 

To preserve wire rope under water or under ground, 
take mineral or vegetable tar, and add one bushel of fresh- 
slacked lime to one barrel of tar, which will neutralize 
the acid. Boil it well, and saturate the rope with the hot 
tar. To give the mixture body, add some saw-dust. 

In no case should galvanized rope be used for running 
rope. One day's use scrapes off the coating of zinc, and 
rusting proceeds with twice the rapidity. 

The grooves of cast-iron pulleys and sheaves should be 
filled with well-seasoned blocks of hard wood, set on end, 
to be renewed when worn out. This end-wood will save 
wear and increase adhesion. The smaller pulleys or 
rollers which support the ropes on inclined planes should 
be constructed on the same plan. When large sheaves 
run with very great velocity, the grooves should be lined 
with leather, set on end, or with India rubber. This is 
done in the case of all sheaves used in the transmission 
of power between distant points by means of rope, which 
frequently run at the rate of 4,000 feet per minute. 

Steel ropes are, to a certain extent, taking the place of 
iron ropes, where it is a special object to combine light- 
ness with strength. 

But in substituting a steel rope for an iron running 
rope, the object in view should be to gain an increased 
wear from the rope rather than to reduce the size. 

To be serviceable, a steel rope should be of the best 
obtainable quality, as ropes made from low grades of 
steel are inferior to good iron ropes. 



128 WIRE ROPES. 

TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY WIRE 

ROPE. 

The use of a round endless-wire rope running at a 
great velocity in a grooved sheave, in place of a flat belt 
running on a flat-faced pulley, constitutes the transmis- 
sion of power by wire ropes. The distance to which 
this can be applied ranges from fifty feet up to about 
three miles. It commences at the point where a belt 
becomes too long to be used profitably, and can then be 
extended almost indefinitely. 

A table of horse-powers is here presented. It em- 
braces every case that will ordinarily arise in practice, 
and one can readily select that combination which will 
suit his own case, especially if the driving machinery 
already exists. Where there is a choice between a small 
wheel and fast speed, or a larger wheel with slower 
speed, it is recommended to take the larger wheel. The 
range in the size of wire ropes used is small; it varies 
only from f-inch diameter to l^inch diameter in a range 
of 3 to 250 horse-power. The ropes are the cheapest 
part of a transmission, and the cost of renewal is very 
small. 

When placing wheels, special care must be taken to 
set the wheel shafts at right-angles to the line of trans- 
mission, and also to set the wheels true on the shafts, 
otherwise the wheels will wabble and cause the rope to 
jerk. When possible, the use of guide-wheels or sup- 
porting-wheels should be avoided, as each one adds to 
the wear on the rope, and also diminishes the power 
slightly. 

For speeds below 80 revolutions, use rope one size 
longer than given in table, in order to get same horse- 
power as given in table for 80 revolutions. For short 
transmissions less than 100 feet span, use^'ope two sizes 
larger. 

By using pliable wire rope, having 19 wires to strand, 
an increase of 5 to 10 per cent, in horse-power is obtained, 
less power being consumed in bending the wires. For 
spans 250 feet and upwards, steel rope may be used to 
advantage, because it stretches less and splices require 
to be taken up less frequently. 

By use of tightening-pulleys, working the under rope 
under a high tension, double the power can be obtained 
in short spans. In such cases a pliable rope should be 
used— 19 wires to strand — of double the weight of rope 
named in table. 

Avoid the use of taper- keys. 



WIRE ROPES. 



129 



TABLE OF TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY 

WIRE ROPES. 

(Revised July Ist^ 1886.) 





Number 

of 

Revolutions. 


S p. 
s o 
^^ 


Diameter 

of 

Rope. 




Diameter of 

Wheel 

in Feet. 


Number 

of 

Revolutions. 


Trade 

Numl)er of 

Rope. 


Diameter 

of 

Rope. 


3 


80 


23 


f 


3 


7 


140 


20 


A 


3 


100 


23 


1 


34 


8 


80 


19 


1 


3 


120 


23 


1 


4 


8 


100 


19 


s 


3 


140 


23 


t 


44 


8 


120 


19 


i 


4 


80 


23 


1 


4 


8 


140 


19 


J 


4 


100 


23 


1 


5 


9 


80 


(20 
(19 


|A i 


4 


120 


23 


i 


6 


9 


100 


(20 
Il9 


|ft i 


4 


140 


23 


i 


7 


9 


120 


j20 
U9 


j 1% 8 


5 


80 


22 


A 


9 


9 


140 


20 
Il9 


JA i 


5 


100 


22 


A 


11 


10 


80 


(19 

Il8 




5 


120 


22 


iV 


13 


10 


100 


(19 

(18 


( 5. 11 
f 8 16 


5 

• 


140 


22 


A 


15 


10 


120 


(19 

(18 . 


! s 11 


6 


80 


21 


4 


14 


10 


140 


(19 

(18 


} f u 


6 


100 


21 


4 


17 


12 


80 


(18 
(17 


\ih 1 


6 


120 


21 


1 
2 


20 


12 


100 


(18 
(17 


iui 


6 


140 


21 


i 


23 


12 


120 


(18 
(17 


1^1- 


7 


80 


20 


A 


20 


12 


120 


16 


7 
8 


7 


100 


20 


^ 


25 


14 


80 


i§ 


1 1 n 


7 


120 


20 


1% 


30 


14 


100 


i§ 


\ 1 14 



K; 



35 
26 
32 
39 

45 

( 47 
( 48 
( 58 
\ 60 
( 69 
( 73 
( 82 
( 84 

64 
( 68 
( 80 
( 85 

96 
(102 
(112 
(119 

93 
( 99 
116 
(124 
(140 
(149 

173 

(141 

(148 
( 176 
■/ 185 



The above table gives the power produced by Patent 
Rubber-lined Wheels and Wire Belt Ropes, at various 
speeds. 

Horse-powers given in this table are calculated with a 
liberal margin for any temporary increase of work. 



130 



WIRE ROPES. 



INCLINED PLANE. 

For the benefit of those desiring to use wire rope on 
slopes, inclined planes, etc., we subjoin a table by which 
the strain produced by any load can easily be calculated. 

The table gives the strain produced on a rope by a load 
of one ton of 2,000 pounds, an allowance for rolling 
friction being made. An additional allowance for the 
weight of the rope will have to be made. 

Example : For an inclination of 25 feet in 100 feet, cor- 
responding to an angle of 14^^ degrees, a load of 2,000 
pounds will produce a strain on the rope of 497 pounds, 
and for a load of 8,000 pounds the strain on the rope will 

^ 497X8,000 1 HQQ ^ A 

be — — — ? = 1,988 pounds. 

2,000 ' ^ 







Strain in 






Strain in 




Correspond- 


pounds on 




Correspond 


pounds on 


Elevation 


iijg angle 


rope from a 


Elevation 


ing angle 


rope from a 


in 100 feet. 


of inclina- 


load of 


in 100 feet. 


of inclina- 


load of 




tion. 


2,000 
pounds. 




tion. 


2,000 
pounds. 


5 


2F 


112 


95 


43i° 


1,385 


10 


54° 


211 


100 


45° 


1,419 


15 


sr 


308 


105 


46^° 


1,457 


20 


11^°^ 


404 


110 


47|° 


1,487 


25 


16|° 


497 


115 


49° 


1,516 


30 


586 


120 


50i° 


1,544 


35 


19^° 


673 


125 


514° 


1,570 


40 


2ir 


754 


130 


524° 


1,592 


45 


24i° 


832 


135 


53^° 


1,614 


50 


264° 


905 


140 


544° 


1,633 


55 


28i? 


975 


145 


55^° 


1,653 


60 


31° 


1,040 


150 


56i° 


1,671 


65 


33A° 


1,100 


155 


57i° 


1,689 


70 


35° 


1,156 


160 


58° 


1,703* 


75 


37° 


1,210 


165 


58^° 


1,717 


80 


38§° 


1,260 


170 


59i° 


1,729 


85 


404° 


1,304 


175 


60|° 


1,742 


90 


42° 


1,347 









A factor of safety of five to seven times should be 
taken; that is, the working load on the rope should only 
be one-fifth to one-seventh of its breaking strength. As 
a rule, ropes for shafts should have a factor of safety of 
five, and on inclined planes, where the wear is much 
greater, the factor of safety should be seven. 

Drawings of double-grooved wheels for gravity planes 
will be sent on application to Roebling's Sons, Co. 

Mr. Geo. Patterson, Supt. Brandy wine Granite Co., 
gives the following rule for sheaves : The sheave should 
be as many feet in diameter as the rope is inches in cir- 
cumference. 

Sheaves are as a rule much smaller than this proportion, 
but a larger sheave lengthens life and wear of the rope. 



ROPES, CABLES AND HAWSERS. 



131 



MANILLA AND HEMP HOPES, HAWSERS 

AND CABLES. 

Ropes of hemp fibres are laid with three or four 
strands of twisted fibres, and run up to a circumference 
of twelve inches. 

Hawsers are laid with three strands of rope, or with 
four rope strands, 

Cables are laid with three strands of rope only. Ropes 
of four strands, up to eight inches, are fully sixteen per 
cent, stronger than those having but three strands. 

Hawsers and cables of three strands, up to twelve 
inches, are fully ten per cent, stronger than those having 
four strands. 

Tarring ropes lessens their strength : this is in conse- 
quence of the injury the fibres receive from the high 
temperature of the tar (290° F.). 

The use of tarred ropes in standing rigging is partially 
to diminish contraction and expansion by alternately wet 
and dry weather. Tarred hemp and manilla ropes are 
of about equal strength. 

The greater the degree of twisting given to the fibres 
of a rope, etc., the less the strength, as the exterior 
alone resists the greater portion of the strain. 

TABLE OF MANILLA ROPE. 



Diam. 
Inches. 


Circ. 
Inches. 


Weight 
per foot 
pounds. 


Breaking 

load 
pounds. 


Diam. 
Inches. 


Circ. 
Inches. 

6 


Weight 
per foot 
pounds. 


.239 


3 


.019 


560 


1.91 


1.19 


.318 


1 


.033 


784 


2.07 


64 


1.39 


.477 


H 


.074 


1,568 


2.23 


7 


1.62 


.636 


2 


.132 


2,733 


2.39 


74 


1.86 


.795 


2^ 


.206 


4,278 


2.55 


8 


2.11 


.955 


3 


.297 


6,115 


2.86 


9 


2.67 


1.11 


34 


.404 


8,534 


3.18 


10 


3.30 


1.27 


4 


.528 


11,558 


3.50 


11 


3.99 


1.43 


44 


.668 


14,784 


3.82 


12 


4.75 


1.59 


5 


.825 


18,368 


4.14 


13 


5.58 


1.75 


54 


.998 


21,952 


4.45 


14 


6.47 



Breaking 

load 
pounds. 

25,536 
29,120 
32,704 
36,288 
39,872 
47,040 
54,208 
61,376 
68,544 
75,712 
82,880 



The strength of manilla rope is very variable. The 
strength of pieces from same coil may vary 25 per oent. 

A few months of exposed work weakens ropes 20 to 50 
per cent. 



WOOD. 



BOARD AND TIMBER MEASURE. 

One foot board measure (B. M.) is equal to one foot 
square and one inch thick. 

One inch board measure is equal to one foot long, one 
inch wide and one inch thick. 

Twelve inches board measure = one foot board meas- 
ure. 

One cubic foot= 12 feet (B. M.) 

One thousand (M) feet board measure = 83i cubic feet. 

Lumber is usually measured and sold by the thousand 
(M) feet board measure (B. M.) 

To Compute the Measure of Surface in Square 

Feet. 

When all the dimensions are in feet: Multiply the length 
by the breadth = product required. 

When either of the dimensions are in inches : Multiply 
as above, and divide by 12 == product required. 

When all the dimensions are in inches : Multiply as be- 
fore, and divide by 144 = product required. 

To Compute the Volume of Square Timber. 

When all the dimensions are in feet : Multiply the 
breadth, by the depth, by the length, and the product 
will give the volume in cubic feet. 

When either of the dimensions are given in inches : Mul- 
tiply as above, and divide the product by 12. 

When any two of the dimensions are given in inches : 
Multiply as before, and divide by 144. 

To Compute the Volume of Round Timber. 

When all the dimensions are in feet: Multiply the 
length by the square of one quarter of the mean girth, 
and the product will give the volume in cubic feet. 

When the length is given infect, and the girth in inches : 
Multiply as above, and divide by 144. 

When all the dimensions are in inches : Multiply as be- 
fore, and divide by 1728. 

(132) 



WOOD. 



133 



TABLE OF BOARD MEASURE. 















Width 


IN Inches. 








C£S4 




















6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


11 


12 

Feet. 


13 


14 




Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


1 





6 


7 





8 


9 


10 


Oil 


1 


1 1 


1 2 


2 


1 





1 2 


1 


4 


1 6 


1 8 


1 10 


2 


2 2 


2 4 


3 


1 


6 


1 9 


2 





2 3 


2 6 


2 9 


3 


3 3 


3 6 


4 


2 





2 4 


2 


8 


3 


3 4 


3 8 


4 


4 4 


4 8 


5 


2 


6 


2 11 


3 


4 


3 9 


4 2 


4 7 


5 


5 5 


5 10 


6 


3 





3 6 


4 





4 6 


5 


5 6 


6 


6 6 


7 


7 


3 


6 


4 1 


4 


8 


5 3 


5 10 


6 5 


7 


7 7 


8 2 


8 


4 





4 8 


5 


4 


6 


6 8 


7 4 


8 


8 8 


9 4 


9 


4 


6 


5 3 


6 





6 9 


7 6 


8 3 


9 


9 9 


10 6 


10 


5 





5 10 


6 


8 


7 6 


8 4 


9 2 


10 


10 10 


11 8 


11 


5 


6 


6 5 


7 


4 


8 3 


9 2 


10 1 


11 


11 11 


12 10 


12 


6 





7 


8 





9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


13 


6 


6 


7 7 


8 


8 


9 9 


10 10 


11 11 


13 


14 1 


15 2 


14 


7 





8 2 


9 


4 


10 6 


11 8 


12 10 


14 


15 2 


16 4 


15 


7 


6 


8 9 


10 





11 3 


12 6 


13 9 


15 


16 3 


17 6 


16 


8 





9 4 


10 


8 


12 


13 4 


14 8 


16 


17 4 


18 8 


17 


8 


6 


9 11 


11 


4 


12 9 


14 2 


15 7 


17 


18 5 


19 10 


18 


9 





10 6 


12 





13 6 


15 


16 (i 


18 


19 6 


21 


19 


9 


6 


11 1 


12 


8 


14 3 


15 10 


17 5 


19 


20 7 


22 2 


20 


10 





11 8 


13 


4 


15 


16 8 


18 4 


20 


21 8 


23 4 


21 


10 


6 


12 3 


14 





15 9 


17 6 


19 3 


21 


22 9 


24 6 


22 


11 





12 10 


14 


8 


16 6 


18 4 


20 2 


22 


23 10 


25 8 


23 


11 


6 


13 5 


15 


4 


17 3 


19 2 


21 1 


23 


24 11 


26 10 


24 


12 





14 


16 





18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


25 


12 


6 


14 7 


16 


8 


18 9 


20 10 


«2 11 


25 


27 1 


29 2 


26 


13 





15 2 


17 


4 


19 6 


21 8 


23 10 


26 


28 2 


30 4 


27 


13 


6 


15 9 


18 





20 3 


22 6 


24 9 


27 


29 3 


31 6 


28 


14 





16 4 


18 


8 


21 


23 4 


25 8 


28 


30 4 


32 8 


29 


14 


6 


16 11 


19 


4 


21 9 


24 2 


26 7 


29 


31 5 


33 10 


30 


15 





17 6 


20 





22 6 


25 


27 6 


30 


32 6 


35 


31 


15 


6 


18 1 


20 


8 


23 3 


25 10 


28 5 


31 


33 7 


36 2 



In the above table length of board is given in feet in 
left hand column; the width in inches in the upper row 
of figures. Boards taken in table at one inch thick. 

To use table for boards of greater thickness ; for 1 J 
inch boards add one-fourth to quantity given in table; 
and follow same method with any other thickness of 
board. 

For greater widths take sum of quantities given in two 
columns, the sum of the widths of which equal width de- 
sired. 

Example 1. — How many feet board measure in a 
plank 24 feet long 16 inches wide and 2^ inches thick? 
For one inch boards we see by table : 

24 ft.X6 inches =12 ft. in. B. M. 
24 ft. XlO inches = 20 ft. in. B. M. 
Therefore 24 ft. Xl6 in. Xl in. = 32 ft. B. M. 
and 24 ft. X16 in. X2i in. = 80 ft. B. M. 



134 



WOOD. 



SCAlS^TLIISrGS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE. 



Length 


2X4 


3X6 


2X8 


2X10 


3X4 


3X6 


3X8 


3XIO 


in Feet. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 
Ft. In. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 




Ft. In. 


Feet. 


Ft. In. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


10 


6 8 


10 


13 4 


16 8 


10 


15 


20 


25 


12 


8 


12 


16 


20 


12 


18 


24 


30 


14 


9 4 


14 


18 8 


23 4 


14 


21 


28 


35 


16 


10 8 


16 


21 4 


26 8 


16 


24 


32 


40 


18 


12 


18 


24 


30 


18 


27 


36 


45 


20 


13 4 


20 


26 8 


33 4 


20 


30 


40 


50 


22 


14 8 


22 


29 4 


36 8 


22 


33 


44 


55 


24 


16 


24 


32 


40 


24 


36 


48 


60 


26 


17 4 


26 


34 8 


43 4 


26 


39 


52 


65 


28 


18 8 


28 


37 4 


46 8 


28 


42 


56 


70 


30 


20 


30 


40 


50 


30 


45 


60 


75 


32 


21 4 


32 


42 8 


53 4 


32 


48 


64 


80 



Scantlings Reduced to Board Measure {Continued). 



Length 


4X 


•"> 


4X7 


5X6 


5X8 


r>xio 


6XT 


•7X8 


in Feet. 


Inches. 


Inches, 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 




Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Feet. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Feet. 


Ft. In. 


10 


16 


8 


23 4 


25 


33 4 


41 8 


35 


46 8 


12 


20 





28 


30 


40 


50 


42 


56 


14 


23 


4 


32 8 


35 


46 8 


58 4 


49 


65 4 


16 


26 


8 


37 4 


40 


53 4 


6Q 8 


56 


74 8 


18 


30 





42 


45 


60 


75 


63 


84 


20 


33 


4 


46 8 


^50 
•55 


66 8 


83 4 


70 


93 4 


22 


36 


8 


51 4 


73 4 


91 8 


77 


102 8 


24 


40 





56 


60 


80 


100 


84 


112 


26 


43 


4 


60 8 


65 


86 8 


108 4 


91 


121 4 


28 


46 


8 


65 4 


70 


93 4 


116 8 


98 


130 8 


30 


50 





70 


75 


100 


125 


105 


140 


32 


53 


4 


74 8 


80 


106 8 


133 4 


112 


149 4 



By the above tables the feet B. M. in any common size 
of scantling can be gotten directly from the tables or by 
a simple use of same. Example. — How many feet B. M. 
in a scantling 6X6X18 feet long? From table we sec 
3X6X18 feet long = 27 feet B. M. Therefore 6X6X18 
feet long =54 feet B. M. 

Bear in mind that 12 inches board measure = Ifoot 
board measure. 



WEIGHT OF LUMBER PER 1,000 (M) FEET B. M. 



Pine and Hemlock, . . . 
Norway and Yellow Pine, 
Oak and Walnut, . . . 
Ash and Maple, .... 



Dry. 



2,500 lbs. 
3,000 " 
4,000 " 
3,500 " 



Partly 
Seasoned. 



2,700 lbs. 
4,000 " 
5,000 " 
4,000 " 



Green. 



3,000 lbs. 
5,000 " 



WOOD. 



135 



WEIGHT OF GREEN LOGS TO SCALE 1,000 (M) 

FEET B. M. 

Yellow pine (Southern), 8,000 to 10,000 lbs. 
Norway pine (Michigan), 7,000 to 8,000 lbs. 

White Dine (Michi-an) ^^" ^*' ^^^"^P' ^'^^^ *^ ^'^^ 1^^* 
vvnite pine iMicni^an;, ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^,^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ 

Wliite pine (Pennsylvania,) bark off, 5,000 to 6,000 lbs. 
Hemlock (Pennsylvania), bark off, 6,000 to 7,000 lbs. 

Four acres of water are required to store 1,000,000 feet 
of logs. 

The strongest beam which can be cut out of round log 
is one in which the breadth is to the depth as 5 to 7 very 
nearly. 

PROPERTIES OF TIMBER. 



Description. 



Ash, American, white, 
dry, 

Beech, .... * 

Cherry, dry, . . . 

Chestnut, dry, . . 

Elm, dry, .... 

Hemlock, dry, . . 

Hickory, dry, . . 

Locust, dry, . . . 

Maple, dry, . . . 

Oak, White, dry, . 

Oak, Live, dry, . . 

Oak, other kinds, . 

Pine, White, dry, . 

Pine, Yellow, North- 
ern, 

Pine, Yellow, South 
ern, 

Spruce, dry, . . . 

Walnut, Black, dry. 



mber. 
per Cubic 
in Lbs. 


Wood, 
ght per 
Reasoned, 
Cubic Ft. 


[icity in 
s. per 
re Inch. 


S "I^ -M 


"^'rr, 00 


r-..0 e3 






^ 03 


^ 


u ;l 




38 


3,450 


20,000 


48 


3,250 


11,500 


42 


- 


- 


41 


- 


- 


35 


- 


13,000 


25 


- 


8,740 


53 


4,500 


15,000 


44 


- 


- 


49 


- 


10,000 


48 


3,850 


16,0C0 


59 


- 


- 


32 to 45 


3,250 


- 


25 


2,000 


7,000 


34 


- 


- 


45 








25 


- 


14,000 


38 


- 


- 



9i O 

be J I— I 

C ^ (X) 



(K -1-1 



ti 3 



^ 



9,300 
5,400 

« — 

11,720 
3,150 to 7,000 

2,800 to 4,500 

4,400 to 6,000 

2,800 to 4,5C0 
5,690 



Green timbers usually w^eigh from one-fifth to one- 
half more than dry; ordinary building materials when 
tolerably well seasoned about one-sixth more than per- 
fectly dry. 

Tenacity. — For working timbers take one-fifth to one- 
sixth tenacity as shown by table; the table gives break- 
ing weight. 

Crushing. — The same remarks apply to crushing as to 
tenacity. 



136 



WOOD. 



TABLE. 

[Fro7n ^'Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book,^'' Kidder.] 

Breaking Loads in Tons (2,240 pounds) of Square 
Posts of Moderately Seasoned Hard Pine or 
Oak, Firmly Fixed and Equally Loaded. 



Height 
in 


Side of Square Post in Inches. 


Feet. 


6 


•7 


8 


9 


lO 


11 


12 


14 


16 


8 


39.7 


62.4 


90.8 


124.4 


163.0 


207.0 


255.0 


367.0 


500.0 


9 


35.0 


56.0 


83.5 


115.1 


152.5 


195.0 


242.5 


353.0 


483.0 


10 


30.9 


50.3 


75.3 


105.8 


142.0 


183.0 


230.0 


339.0 


466.0 


11 


27.4 


45.1 


68.9 


96.4 


132.0 


171.5 


217.0 


323.0 


449.0 


12 


24.3 


40.6 


62.5 


87.0 


122.0 


160.0 


204.0 


307.0 


432.0 


13 


21.7 


36.6 


57.2 


81.5 


113.5 


150.0 


192.0 


292.0 


414.5 


14 


19.4 


33.1 


51.9 


76.0 


105.0 


140.0 


180.0 


277.0 


397.0 


15 


17.5 


30.0 


47.6 


70.0 


97.5 


131.0 


169.5 


263.5 


380.0 


16 


15.8 


27.3 


43.4 


64.0 


90.0 


122.0 


159.0 


250.0 


363.0 


17 


14.3 


24.9 


40.0 


59.5 


84.0 


114.0 


149.5 


337.0 


347.0 


18 


13.0 


22.7 


36.6 


55.0 


78.0 


106.0 


140.0 


224.0 


331.0 


19 


11.9 


20.9 


33.8 


51.0 


73.0 


99.5 


132.0 


212.5 


316.0 


20 


10.9 


19.2 


31.1 


47.0 


68.0 


93.0 


124.0 


201.0 


301.0 


22 


9.2 


16.3 


26.8 


40.0 


59.0 


82.0 


109.0 


182.0 


274.0 


24 


7.9 


14.1 


23.2 


36.0 


52.0 


72.0 


97.0 


163.0 


249.0 


26 


6.8 


12.2 


20.1 


30.0 


49.0 


64.0 


87.0 


148.0 


226.0 


28 


5.9 


10.7 


17.7 


28.0 


41.0 


57.0 


78.0 


133.0 


206.0 


30 


5.2 


9.4 


15.3 


25.0 


34.0 


51.0 


70.0 


121.0 


189.0 



For safe load take one- fifth or one-sixth of the break- 
ing load as given in table. 

Iron caps for timber jrlllars^ are useful in important 
structures to distribute thrust evenly through the pillar, 
and alsa for supporting the ends of girders where a 
second post rests on top of the first. 

Floors., — Kidder gives following assumed weights per 
square foot in addition to dead weight of the floor itself 
in designing floors : — 

For floors of dwellings, 40 lbs. per square ft. 

For street bridges for general public traffic, 80 lbs. 
per square ft. 

For schools, 80 lbs. per square ft. 

For hay-lofts, 80 lbs. per square ft. 

For churches, theatres and ball-rooms, 80 to 120 lbs. 
per square ft. 

For storage of grain, 100 lbs. per square ft. 

For warehouses and general merchandise 250 lbs. per 
square ft. 

For factories, 100 to 400 lbs. per square ft. 



WOOD. 



137 



WOODEN BEAMS. 

Safe Uniformly Distributed Load in Tons of 2,000 
Pounds for Rectangular White or Yellow 
Pine Beams One Inch in Thickness. 



c1? 


Depth in Inches. 




t^ 






03 e 
•i-i 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


13 


13 


14 


15 


1 


1.111 


1.736 


2 500 


3.403 


4.444 


5.625 


6.944 


8.403 


10.000 


11.737 


13.611 


15.625 


2 


0.556 


0.868 


1.250 


1.701 


2.222 


2.812 


3.472 


4.201 


5.000 


5.868 


6.806 


7.812 


3 


0.370 


0.579 


0.833 


1.134 


1.481 


1.875 


2.315 


2.801 


3.333 


3 912 


4.537 


5.208 


4 


0.278 


0.434 


0.625 


0.851 


1.111 


1.406 


1.738 


2.101 


2.500 


2.934 


3.403 


3.906 


5 


0.222 


0.347 


0.5>0 


0.681 


0.888 


1.125 


1.389 


1.681 


2.000 


2.347 


2.722 


3- 125 


6 


0.185 


0.289 


0.417 


0.567 


0.741 


0.938 


1.157 


1.400 


1.667 


1.956 


2.269 


2.604 


7 


0.159 


0.248 


0.357 


0.486 


0.635 


0.804 


0.992 


1.200 


1.429 


1.677 


1.944 


2.232 


8 


0.139 


0.217 


0.312 


0.425 


0.555 


0.703 


0.868 


1.050 


1.250 


1.467 


1.701 


l.fi53 


9 


0.123 


0.193 


0.27-? 


0.378 


0.494 


0.625 


0.772 


0.934 


1.111 


1.304 


1.512 


1.736 


10 


O.lll 


0.174 


0.250 


0.340 


0.444 


0.562 


0.694 


0.S40 


1 OiiO 


1.174 


1.361 


1.562 


11 


O.lOl 


0.158 


0.227 


0.309 


0.404 


0.511 


0.631 


0.764 


0.909 


1.067 


1.237 


1.420 


12 


0.093 


0.145 


0.208 


0.284 


0.370 


0.469 


0.579 


0.7U0 


0.833 


0.97S 


1.134 


1.302 


13 


0.085 


0.134 


0.192 


0.261 


0.342 


0.433 


0.534 


0.646 


0.769 


0.903 


1.047 


1.202 


14 


0.079 


0.124 


0.179 


0.243 


0.317 


0.402 


0.496 


0.600 


0.714 


0.838 


0.972 


1.116 


15 


0.074 


0.116 


0.167 


0.227 


0.296 


0.375 


0.463 


560 


0.667 


0.782 


0.907 


1.042 


16 


069 


0.109 


0.156 


0.213 


0.278 


0.352 


0.434 


0.525 


0.625 


0.734 


0.851 


0.977 


17 


0.065 


0.102 


0.147 


0.200 


0.261 


0.331 


0.408 


0.494 


0.588 


0.690 


0.801 


0.919 


18 


0.062 


o.o;^6 


0.139 


0.189 


0.247 


0.312 


0.386 


0.467 


0.556 


0.652 


0.7.56 


0.868 


19 


0.058 


0.091 


0.13? 


0.179 


0.234 


0.296 


0.365 


442 


0.526 


0.617 


0.716 


0.822 


20 


0.056 


087 


0.125 


0.170 


0.222 


0.281 


347 


0.420 


0.500 


0.587 


0.6S1 


0.781 


21 


0.053 


0.083 


0.119 


0.16i 


0.212 


0.268 


0.331 


0.400 


0.476 


0.559 


0.648 


(1.744 


22 


0.051 


0.079 


0.114 


0.155 


0.202 


0.256 


0.311 


0.382 


455 


0.533 


0.619 


0.710 


23 


0.048 


0.075 


0.109 


0.148 


0.193 


0.245 


0.30"-' 


0.365 


0.435 


0.510 


0.592 


0.679 


24 


0.046 


0.072 


0.104 


0.142 


0.185 


0.234 


0.289 


0.350 


0.417 


0.489 


0.567 


0.651 


25 


- 


0.069 


0.100 


0.1.36 


0.178 


0.225 


0.278 


0.336 


0.400 


0.469 


0..544 


0.625 


26 


- 


- 


0.096 


0.131 


0.171 


0.216 


0.267 


0.323 


0.385 


0.451 


0.524 


0.601 


27 


- 


- 


- 


0.126 


0.165 


0.208 


0.257 


0.311 


370 


0.435 


0..504 


0.579 


28 


- 


- 


- 


- 


0.159 


0.201 


0.248 


0.300 


0.357 


0.419 


0.486 


0.5.58 


29 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


0.196 


0.239 


0.290 


0.345 


0.405 


0.469 


539 


30 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


0.231 


0.280 


0.333 


0.391 


0.454 


0.521 



These loads are about one- eighth the breaking load 
Rule. — To find the safe uniformly distributed load m 
oons for white pine or spruce beams, multiply the nuuL- 
ber given in the above table by the thickness of the beam 
in inches. For beams of other wood, multiply also by 
the following numbers : 

White Oak. Hemlock. White Cedar. Yellow Pine, 
1.45 .90 .60 1.50 

Chestnut. 
1.08 

This table gives safe loads uniformly distributed. If 
load concentrated at centre of beam, take one half of 
loading as given in table. 



NAILS. 



NAILS AND SPIKES. 



Size, Length, aistd Kumber to the Pound. 



Cmnherland Nail and Iron Co, 



Ordinary. 



Size. 



2d. 
3 fine 



3 
4 
5 

6 
7 
8 

10 
12 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 



Od. 

8 
10 
12 



Length. 



7 
8 

V^ 

l| 

If 

2 

2i 

2i 

21 

34 

31 

4i 

4| 

5 

02 



No. 
to Lb. 



2 
3i 



710 

588 

448 

336 

216 

166 

118 

94 

72 

50 

32 

20 

17 

14 

10 



Light. 




ft 




4d. 


If 


373 


5 


If 


272 


6 


2 


196 


Brads. 



163 
9() 
74 

50 



Clinch. 



Length. 



2i 

24 
2| 
3 
3i 



No. 
to Lb. 



152 

133 

92 

72 
60 
43 



Fence, 



2 

2i 

2i 

2| 

3 



96 

m 

56 

50 
40 



Spikes. 



4 

41 

5 
6 



19 
15 
13 
10 
9 
7 



Boat. 



l.V 



206 



Finishing. 



Size. 



4d. 

5 

6 

8 
10 
12 
20 



Length. 



n 

-•^8 

2 

2i 
3 

3i 
3i 



Core. 





n 


6d. 


2 


8 


2^- 


10 


2i 


12 


3i 


20 


3i: 


30 


44 


40 


4| 


WH 


2i 


WHL 


2j 



No. 
to Lb. 



Slate. 





ff 


3d. 


lA 


4 


1-1^1 


5 


i| 


6 


2 



384 

256 

204 

102 

80 

65 

46 



143 
68 
60 
42 
25 
18 
14 

69 

72 



288 
244 
187 
146 



(138) 



NAILS. 



139 



TACKS. 





^ 






^ 






^ 






to 


Number 




be 


Number 




to 


Number 


Size. 


a 


to Lb. 


Size. 




to Lb. 


Size. 


S 

14. 
Ij5 


to Lb. 


1 oz. 


1 
8 


16,000 


4 oz. 


^ 


4,000 


14 oz. 


1,143 


1'. 


T% 


10,006 


6 


A 


2,6()6 


16 


7 
5 


1,000 


2 


i 


8,000 


8 


^ 


2,000 


18 


i^ 


888 


2.V 


A 


6,400 


10 


lA 


1,600 


20 


1 


800 


3 


3 

8 


5,333 


12 


1 


1,333 


22 


I1V 


727 



NAILIKG MEMORANDA. 

For 1,000 shingles allow 3^ to 5 pounds 4d. nails or 
3 to oi pounds 3d. nails. 

1,000 laths about 6 pounds 3d. fine. 

1,000 feet clapboard about 18 pounds 6d. box. 

1,000 feet covering boards about 20 jDOundsSd. common. 

1,000 feet covering boards about 2.5 pounds lOd. common. 

1,000 feet upper floors, square edged, about 38 pounds 
lOd. floor. 

1,000 feet upper floors, square edged, about 41 pounds 
12d. floor. 

1,000 feet upper floors, matched and blind nailed, about 
35 i^ounds lOd. floor. 

1,000 feet upper floors, matched and blind nailed, about 
42 pounds 12d. floor. 

10 feet partitions, studs or studding, about 1 pound lOd. 
c jmmon. 

1,000 feet furring, 1 by 3, about 45 pounds lOd. common. 

1,000 fett furring, 1 by 2, about 65 pounds lOd. 

1,000 feet pine finish about 30 pounds 8d. finish. 



ROOFING. 



SLATING. 



Slating is estimated by the ''square," which is the 
quantity required to cover 100 square feet. Slates are 
usually laid so that the third slate laps the first three 
inches. Therefore to compute the number of slates of 
a given size required per square : Subtract 3 inches from 
the length of the slate, multiply the remainder by the 
width, and divide by 2. This will give the number of 
square inches covered per slate. 



TABLE SHOWING IN^UMBER OF SLATES PEE 
SQUARE LAID AS ABOVE. 



Size ill 


Pieces per 


Size in 


Pieces per 


Size in 


Pieces per 


Inches. 


Square. 


Indies. 


Square. 


Indies. 


Square. 


6X12 


533 


8X16 


277 


12X20 


141 


7X12 


457 


9X16 


246 


14X20 


121 


8X12 


400 


10X16 


221 


11X22 


137 


X12 


355 


9X18 


213 


12X22 


12(5 


X14 


374 


10X18 


192 


14X22 


108 


X14 


327 


12X18 


160 


12X24 


114 


9X14 


291 


10X20 


169 


14X24 


98 


10X14 


261 


11X20 


154 


16X24 


86 



Slate weighs per cubic ft. about 174 pounds ; per square 
ft. various thickness as follows: — 



Thickness in inches, .... 
Weight in lbs. per square foot, 



1 

8 

1.81 



2.71 



i 
3.62 



5.43 



7.25 



The weight of slating laid per square ft. of surface 
covered will of course depend on the size of the slate 
used. Each slate fastened by two 3d. slate nails, either 
of galvanized iron, copper or zinc. On roofs of gas- 
houses the nails should be of copper or yellow metal. 

(140) 



ROOFING. 



141 



GALVANIZED ROOFIISTG IRON. 

[^Of New Jersey Steel and Iron Co.'\ 





Weight per Square Foot Galvanized. 


No. of Wire Gauge 
before Galvanizing. 


Flat Sheets. 


Corrugated 
Sheets. 


Corrugated 

Sheets Laid, 

Including Laps. 


27 = .017 inch. 


0.978 


1.09 


1.30 


26 = .018 




1.06 


1.18 


1.41 


25 = .020 




1.14 


1.27 


1.52 


24 =.0225 




1.22 


1.36 


1.62 


23 = .025 ' 




1.34 


1.49 


1.79 


22 = .028 




1.46 


1.62 


1.95 


21 = .031 


a 


1.63 


1.81 


2.17 


20 = .035 




1.75 


1.94 


2.33 


19 = .040 




2.03 


2.26 


2.71 


18 =.045 " 


2.32 


2.58 


3.09 



Numbers 20 and 22 are usual thickness for roofing. 

TIN ROOFS, 

Improperly so-called, are made of iron plates covered 
with lead or tin, or a mixture of both. The most com- 
mon form of these plates are coated with a mixture of 
lead and tin and called terns. 

Felt paper should be placed under plates upon the roof 
to deaden sound of rain and to act as a cushion. Roof 
should be allowed to be thoroughly washed by the rain, 
and then all rosin, if any used in soldering, should be 
scraped off before roof is painted on outside. 

Paint for tin roof 10 pounds Venetian red, 1 pound red 
lead, 1 gallon pure linseed oil. 

Common sizes 14X20 and 20X28. 

Smaller sizes are best, as making more joints and 
therefore making better allowance for expansion. 

Tin should be laid with smaller dimensions for width. 

In soldering, rosin is flux generally used. 

Tin roofs should be locked and soldered at all joints, 
and secured by tin cleats, not by driving nails through 
the tin itself. 

Two good workmen can put on, and paint outside, 
from 250 to 300 square feet of tin roof per day of eight 
hours. 

Tin roofs of good material when properly painted and 
put on should last thirty to forty years. 

Tin plates before being laid should be painted on 
under side. Tin roofs often laid on old shingle roofs. 

SHINGLES. 

The best shingles are of white cedar or cypress, and 
last in Northern states forty to fifty years; in warm, 



142 ROOFING. 

damp climates will only last six to twelve years. All 
shingles wear thin by rain. 
With an average width of six inches, 

If laid 4 inches to the weather 600 will cover a square. 

u ^ u it u 535 U U 

U 5 Ct U U 4gQ U tt 

u 5^ u u u 440 it u 

tt g it tt tt 4Q() << u 

This applies to common gable roofs. In hip roofs add 
five per cent, to above allowance. 

For 1,000 shingles allow 3i to 5 pounds 4d. nails or 3 
to 3i, 3d. nails. 

ROOFING TILES. 

Koofing tiles are coming largely into use in this 
country — their use for a long time having been very com- 
mon in Europe. 

Plain tiles, usually made f inch thick, 6J inches wide and 
lOi inches long. They weigh from 2 to 2^ pounds each. 
Exposed one-half to the weather, 720 tiles cover one 
square (100 square feet). Tiles are hung to roof by oak 
pins inserted in two holes made in tile by the manufac- 
turer. Semi- cylindrical tiles made for ridge, crown, hip, 
valley and gutter. 

GENERAL RULES FOR ROOFING. 

A " square " = 100 square feet or 10 feet square. 

Roofs covered with metal should have a slope of at 
least 1 inch per foot. 

Trautwine allows " 12 pounds per square foot for 
average snow load in U. S. and 20 pounds for combined 
loading of snow and wind." This is of course a variable 
factor depending on the locality. 

"In first-class work, top course of slate on ridge, and 
the slate for 2 to 4 feet from all gutters, and 1 foot 
each way from all valleys and hips should be bedded 
in elastic cement." — [Kidder.] 

Flashings are pieces of tin, copper or zinc, laid over 
slate or other roofing material, and up against walls, 
chimneys copings, etc. 



RECIPES. 



TO CLEAN BRASS, ETC. 

Powdered rottenstone, ^ pound; soft soap, i pound; 
oil of vitriol, 4 drops ; sweet oil, 1 teaspoonf ul ; turpen- 
tine, 1 tablespoonful. Mix in a basin with a wooden 
spoon or stick, and keep in a jar. Put on with a piece 
of flannel, and while damp rub off with a piece of soft 
linen. Polish with leatlier dipped in fine dry whiting. 

Oxalic acid dissolved in soft water, say ^ an ounce to a 
pint, is one of the best known means for cleaning and 
brightening brass work. 

Iron or Steel immersed warm in a solution of car- 
bonate of soda (washing soda) for a few minutes will not 
rust. 

WHITEWASH. 

For Indoor Work. — 2 pounds Paris whiting, 1 ounce 
white glue; dissolve the glue in warm water. Mix 
whiting with warm water, stir in glue, thin with warm 
water. 

For Outside Work. — Slack 1 peck of lime with water. 
While hot, add ^ pound of tallow or other grease, stir 
thoroughly — will stand rain. 

Quantities. — 1^ cubic feet of lime will cover 100 
yards superficid— 1 coat. 2 cubic feet of lime will cover 
100 yards superficid — 2 coats. 

A PERMAlNTEiS^T WHITEWASH. 

Slack one-half bushel unslacked lime with boiling 
water, keeping it covered during process; strain it, and 
add a peck of salt dissolved in warm water, 3 pounds 
ground rice, boiled in hot water to a thin paste, one- 
half pound ground Spanish whiting, and a pound of 
clear glue, dissolved in warm water; mix these well to- 
gether and let stand for a few days. When used put it 
on as hot as possible. 

AIR AND STEAM-TIGHT RUBBER PACKING. 

Brush the packing over with a solution of powdered 
resin in ten times its weight of strong water of ammonia. 

(143) 



144 RECIPES. 

This mixture is at first a sticky mass, but becomes fit for 
use in about three or four weeks. It easily adheres to 
rubber, as well as to wood or metal, and becomes per- 
fectly impervious to liquids. 

CEMEN^T- FOR JOmTS. 

Paris white, ground, 4 pounds; litharge, ground, 10 
pounds ; yellow ochre, fine, half a pound ; half-ounce of 
hemp, cut short. Mix well together with linseed oil to a 
stiff putty. 

This cement is good for joints on steam or water pipes ; 
it will set under water. 

MIXTURE FOR WELDING STEEL. 

1 Sal ammoniac, 10 borax ; pounded together and fused 
until clear, when it is poured out, and when cool reduced 
to powder. 

RUST JOINT CEMENT {quickly setting), 

1 Sal ammoniac in powder (by weight) ; 2 flower of 
sulphur; 80 iron borings made to a paste with water. 

RUST JOINT (slowly setting). 

2 Sal ammoniac; 1 flower of sulphur; 200 iron borings. 
The latter cement is the best if the joint is not required 

for immediate use. 

RED LEAD CEMENT FOR FACE JOINTS. 

1 of white lead ; 1 of red lead, mixed with linseed oil 
to the proper consistency. 

GLUE TO RESIST MOISTURE. 

1 pound of glue melted in 2 quarts of skimmed milk. 
When strong glue is required, add powdered chalk to 
common glue. 

MARINE GLUE. 

1 of India rubber; 12 of mineral naptha or coal tar; 
heat gently; mix, and add 20 of powdered shellac. Pour 
out on a slab to cool; when used to be heated to about 
250° 

GLUE CEMENT TO RESIST MOISTURE. 

1 glue ; 1 black resin ; i red ochre, mixed with the least 
possible quantity of water; or 4 of glue; 1 of boiled oil 
by weight; 1 oxide of iron. 



RECIPES. 145 

CEMENT FOR CLOTH OR LEATHER. 

16 gutta-percha, cut small; 4 india-rubber, cut small; 
2 pitch, cut small; 1 shellac, cut small; 2 linseed oil, 
melted together and well mixed. 

GLUE LEATHER TO IR0:N^. 

Paint iron with white lead and lamp black; when dry- 
cover with cement made as follows : Soak best glue in 
cold water till soft, then dissolve in vinegar with moder- 
ate heat; add one-third of its bulk of white pine turpen- 
tine; mix thoroughly, and reduce with vinegar to a 
proper consistency to spread with brush. Apply while 
hot. Draw leather on quickly and press tightly to place. 

AISTTI-FRICTIOINT GREASE. 

Boil together If cwt. of tallow with IJ cwt. of palm 
oil. When boiling point is reached allow it to cool to 
blood heat, stirring it meanwhile, then strain through a 
sieve into a solution of ^ cwt. of soda in 3 gallons of 
water, mixing it well. 

The above is for summer. 

For winter, 1^ cwt. of tallow to If cwt. palm oil. 

Spring and autumn, 1^ cwt. of tallow to H cwt. palm 
oil. 

MIXTURE TO COOL HOT J0UR:N^ALS. 

11 pounds black lead; 23 pounds epsom salt; 9 pounds 
sulphur; 2 pounds lampblack; 5 pounds oxalic acid. 

The ingredients to be pulverized, mixed, and ground 
together. 

TO SOFTEN PUTTY IN SASHES. 

Run a red hot iron over it, it will then peel off easily. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



DERRICK MEMORANDA. 

[From Catalogue American Hoist and Derrick Co.^ St. 

Paul, Minnesota.^ 

Desirable length of guys on level ground should be 
three times the height of the mast. Four guys are the 
usual number, although six or eight guys are sometimes 
used to give extra strength and stiffness. 

In the "Sectional Derrick," made by above Company, 
no part exceeds 20 feet in length. Boom 75 feet. Capac- 
ities 5 and 15 tons. 

Long sticks used for masts and booms of derricks are 
often difficult to ship, and in many localities long sticks 
are difficult to get. The mast and boom of this derrick 
are each made of four pieces of timber butted together 
at the cross-trees and held straight by the truss rods. 
The only tool required to put this derrick together is a 
wrench. 

The *' Crane Derrick " (steam or hand-power). The 
special feature of this derrick is an inclined boom, in 
general practice 25 to 39 feet from the ground. 

The boom is made of two pieces held at the right dis- 
tance apart by iron yokes. On the top side of the boom 
timbers are tracks made of light R. R. Irons. 

On these tracks rolls the trolley which guides the hoist- 
ing line. The trolley is moved toward the boom end by 
a trolley line. Releasing the pull on the trolley line al- 
lows the load to move down the incline boom toward the 
mast. These derricks are especially adapted to build- 
ings, where all materials for two stories can be handled 
and set in place without moving derrick; also useful in 
stone yards, as it takes up little room, and can handle 
stone from end of boom to point near mast. 

TABLE SHOWING PRACTICAL PROPORTIONS. 







- 




Price of all Iron and 
Blocks Complete, with 


Estimated 


Length of 


Length of 


Ground to 


necessary Drawings 


Capacity. 


Mast. 


Boom. 


Boom. 


for making Wood 
Work (Wire Kope not 
included). 


5 tons. 


72 ft. 


55 ft. 


39 ft. 


$480.00 


5 " 


65 " 


50 " 


35 " 


475.00 


5 ** 


58 " 


45 " 


31 *' 


470.00 


5 " 


52 " 


40 '* 


28 " 


465.00 


5 " 


46 " 


35 " 


25 " 


460.00 



(146) 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



147 



'^Wrought Iron Tubular Derricks'" similar to the 
" Sectional Derrick " are also made by American Hoist 
and Derrick Co., with capacities 5, 10 and 20 tons. 

LEAD MEMORANDA. 

[^Kidder.^ 

For roofs and gutters use 7-pound lead. 

For hips and ridges use 6-pound lead. 

For flashings use 4-pound lead. 

Gutters should have a fall of at least one inch in ten 
feet. 

No sheet of lead should be laid in greater length than 
ten or twelve feet without a drip to allow of expansion. 

Joints of lead pipes require a pound of solder for 
every inch in diameter. 

A pig of lead is about three feet long and weighs from 
a hundred-weight and a fourth to a hundred- weight and 
a half. 

Spanish pigs are about a hundred-weight. 

CAPACITY OF FREIGHT CARS. 

A car load is nominally 20,000 pounds. It is also 70 
barrels of salt, 70 of lime, 90 of flour, 60 of whiskey, 
200 sacks of flour, 6 cords of soft wood, 18 to 20 head of 
cattle, 50 to 60 head of hogs, 80 to 100 head of sheep, 
9,000 feet of solid boards, 17,000 feet of siding, 13,000 
feet of flooring, 40,000 shingles, one-fourth less of green 
timber. 340 bushels of wheat, 400 of corn, 680 of oats, 
400 of barley, 300 of flax-seed, 360 of apples, 430 of Irish 
potatoes, 360 of sweet potatoes, 1,000 bushels of bran. 

THE FEEDING PROPERTIES OF DIFFER- 
ENT VEGETABLES, IN COMPARISON 
WITH TEN POUNDS OF HAY. 



Hay, . . 
Clover hay, 
Yetch hay. 
Wheat straw 
Barley straw. 
Oat straw, 
Pea straw, 
Potatoes, . 
Old potatoes, 
Turnips, 



10 

8 
4 
52 
52 
55 
6 
28 
40 
60 



Carrots, 35 

Cabbage, . . . 30 to 40 
Peas and beans, . 2 to 3 

Wheat, 5 

Barley, 6 

Oats, 5 

Rye, 5 

Indian corn, .... 6 

Bran, ...... 5 

Oil-cake, 2 



Thus 2 pounds of oil- cake is worth as much as 55 
pounds of oat straw. 

Dimensions of drawings for Patents (U. S.) 8^ by 12 
inches. 



148 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 

Dimensions of a barrel. — Diameter at head, 17 inches; 
bung, 19 inches; length, 28 inches; volume, 7,680 cubic 
inches. 

A gallon of fresh water weighs 8^ pounds, and con- 
tains 231 cubic inches. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds, and contains 
1,728 cubic inches, or 7i gallons. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity 
4 times. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the 
square of the velocity. 

Melted snow produces from i to i of its bulk in water. 

In Kentucky, 80 pounds of bituminous or cannel coal 
make a bushel. 

In Illinois, 80 pounds of bituminous coal make a 
bushel. 

In Missouri, 80 pounds of bituminous coal make a 
bushel. 

In Indiana, 70 pounds of bituminous coal make a 
bushel. 

In Pennsylvania, 76 pounds of bituminous coal make a 
bushel. 

Coal, corn in the ear, fruit and roots are sold by heaped 
measure, that is, the bushel is heaped in the form of a 
cone, which cone must be 19^ inches in diameter (equal 
to the outside diameter of the standard bushel measure), 
and at least 6 inches in height. 

Grain and some other commodities are sold by stricken 
measure, that is, the measure is to be stricken with a 
round stick or roller, straight and of the same diameter 
from end to end. 

Glazing and stone- cutting are estimated by the square 
feet. 

Painting, plastering, paving, ceiling and paper-hang- 
ing are estimated by the square yard. 

Pitch of Tin, Copper, or Tar and Gravel Boof. — One 
inch to the foot and upward. 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 

(Adapted from ^'■Useful Information for Railway Men.'''' 

W. G. Hamilton.) 



In any Case of Serious Injury, Poisoning, Drown- 
ing, Sunstroke, Etc., Send for A PHYSICIAN AT 
ONCE. 

RULES FOR THE COURSE TO BE FOL- 
LOWED BY THE BYSTANDERS IN CASE 
OF INJURY BY MACHINERY, WHEN 
SURGICAL ASSISTANCE CANNOT BE AT 
ONCE OBTAINED. 

The dangers to be feared in these cases are: Shock or 
collapse^ loss of bloody and unnecessary suffering in the 
moving of the patient. 

I. In SHOCK the injured person lies pale, faint, cold, 
sometimes insensible, with labored pulse and breathing. 

Apply external warmth, by wrapping him up (not merely 
covering him over) in blankets, quilts, or extra clothes. 
Bottles of hot water, hot bricks (not too hot) may also 
be wrapped up in cloths and put to the arm-pits along 
the sides and between the feet, if they are uninjured. 

If the patient has not been drinking, give brandy or 
whiskey in teaspoonful doses every 30 minutes — less fre- 
quently as he gets better. Food (strong soup or hot 
coffee is the best) should also be given now and then. 

II. Loss OF Blood. — If the patient is not bleeding, 
do not apply any constriction to the limb, but cover the 
wounded part lightly with the softest rags to be had 
(linen is the best). 

If there is bleeding do not try to stop it by binding up 
the wound. The current of the blood to the part must 
be checked. To do this, find the artery, by its beating; 
lay a firm and even compress or pad (made of cloth or 
rags rolled up, or a round stone or piece of wood well 
wrapped) over the artery {see figure 1); tie a hand- 
kerchief around the limb 
and compress; put a bit 
■ of stick through the 
handkerchief and twist 
the latter up until it is 
Just tight enough to stop 
the bleeding \ then put 
one end of the stick 
Fig. 1. under the handkerchief Fig. 2. 

to prevent untwisting, as in Figure 2. 

(149) 





150 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 





The artery in 
the thigh runs 
along the inner 
side of the mus- 
cle in front, 
near the bone. 
A little above 
the knee, it 
passes to the 
back of the 
Fig. 6— Arm. bone. In inju- Fig. S—Leg. 

ries at or above the knee, apply the compress high up, on 
the inner side of the thigh, at the point where the two 
thumbs meet at C in Figure 3, with the knot on the 
outer side of the thigh. When the leg is injured below 
the knee, apply the compress at the back of the thigh 
just above the knee at C, in Figure 4, and the knot in 
front as in Figures 1 and 2. 

The artery in the arm runs down 
the inner side of the large muscle in 
front, quite close to the bone; low 
down it gets further forward toward 
the bend of the elbow. It is most 
easily found and compressed a little 
above the middle (see Figure 5). 

Care should be taken to examine 
the limb from time to time, and to 
lessen the compression if it becomes 
very cold or purple ; tighten up the 
handkerchief again if the bleeding 
begins afresh. 
III. To Transport a Wounded Person Comfort- 
ably.— Make a soft and even bed for the injured part, 
of straw, folded blankets, quilts, or pillows laid on a 
board, with sides— pieces of board nailed on, where this 
can be done. If possible, let the patient be laid on a 
door, shutter, or some firm support, properly covered. 
Have sufficient force to lift him steadily, and let those 
who bear him not keep step. 

ly. Should any important arteries be opened apply 
the handkerchief as recommended. Secure the vessel 
by a surgeon' s dressing forceps, or by a hook, then have 
a silk ligature put around the vessel and tighten tight 
(this operation requires some knowledge of surgery). 

Y. Should the bleeding be from arterial vessels of 
small size, apply tlie persulphate of iron, either in 
tincture or in powder, by wetting a piece of lint or 
sponge with the solution'; then, after bleeding ceases 
apply a compress agitinst the parts to sustain them dur- 
ing the application of the persulphate of iron; and to 




Fig. 4. 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 151 

prevent further bleeding should it occur. The persul- 
phate of iron^should be kept on hand in all workshops. 
Send for a physician in all cases. 

FOR BURNS OR SCALDS. 

In the early stage soon after the accident if there is no 
separation of the skin do not cut the bladder, but allow 
the bladder of water of whatever size, to remain un- 
touched ; merely dress it with a piece of linen or muslin 
lightly coated with simple cerate. 

If the parts are denuded of the skin, dress the parts 
with cotton, the object being to exclude the air and pre- 
vent suppuration. If cotton cannot be procured, apply any 
covering until you can have an ointment made of beeswax 
and sweet oil, equal parts, or lime water and linseed oil, 
or lay on scraped potatoes or carrots, or sprinkle flour on 
the injured surface when the above canot be procured. 
Flour is troublesome in its removal. If the scald is ex- 
tensive and on the body cold applications are not 
proper; then use warm fomentation, or, in the case of a 
child the warm bath. Keep the air from the wound as 
much as possible; do not remove the dressing often. 
When a cold lotion is used, pour it upon the rags, letting 
them remain undisturbed. 

BRUISES. 

Use tepid applications at first. After inflammation has 
subsided, use stimulation applications, as vinegar and 
water, alcohol, camphorated liniment. 

SPRAINS. 

Elevate the limb; keep the joint perfectly quiet; apply 
hot lotions or fomentation. When inflammation has 
ceased, apply stimulating liniments and bandages ; shower 
the part with cold water, alternating with warm water. 

CONTUSIONS AND SPRAINS. 
[Dr. Bradford.] 

Tine, opii (laudanum), 6 fluid drams; Liq. plumbi 
subacet (strong solution subacetate lead), 3 fluid drams. 
Aquae q. s. ad (water sufficient to measure) 6 fluid 
ounces. Use externally. 

TO RESTORE PERSONS AFFECTED BY COLD. 

For Frost-Bite or NuMBisrESS. — Restore warmth 
gradually in proportion as circulation in the parts of the 
body increases. 

For a Frozen Limb. — Rub with snow and place in 
cold Avater for a short time. AVhen sensation returns 



152 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 

place again in cold water; add heat very gradually by 
adding warm water. 

If Apparently Dead or Insensible. — Strip en- 
tirely of clothes, and cover body, with exception of 
mouth and nostrils, with snow or ice cold water. 
When body is thawed, dry it, place it in a cold bed ; rub 
with warm hands under the cover; continue this for 
hours. If life appears, give small injections of camphor 
and water: put a drop of spirits of camphor on tongue; 
then rub body with spirits and water, finally with spirits; 
then give tea, coffee, or brandy and water. 

Send for a physician in all cases. 

APPARENT DEATH FROM BREATHING KOXIOUS 
YAPOR, AS IN WELLS, ETC. 

If insensible, expose person to the open air; sprinkle 
cold water on the face and head; rub strong vinegar 
about nostrils; give drink of vinegar and water. If suf- 
focated by breathing fumes of charcoal, proceed as 
above, and excite breathing as in remedy given in cases 
of drowning. 

Send for a physician in all cases. 

To purify wells, etc., shower water down them until a 
candle will burn at the bottom with a clear flame. 

RULES FOR ACCIDENTS ON WATER. 

When upset in a boat, or thrown into the water and 
unable to swim, draw the breath in well ; keep the 
mouth tight shut; do not struggle and throw the arms 
up, but yield quietly to the water; hold the head well 
up, and stretch out the hands only below the water; to 
throw the hands or feet up will pitch the head down^ and 
cause the whole person to go immediately under water. 
Keep the head above, and everything else under water. 

METHOD TO BE USED IN CASES OF DROWNING. 

[Dr. Marshall HalV s Remedy.] 

Send for a physician in all cases. 

1st. Treat the patient instantly on the spot, in 
the OPEN AIR, freely exposing the face, neck, and chest, 
to the breeze, except in severe weather. 

2d. In order to clear the throat, place the patient 
gently on the face, with one wrist under the forehead, 
that all fluid, and the tongue itself, may fall forward, 
and leave the entrance into the windpipe free. 

Sd. To EXCITE respiration, turn the patient slightly 
on his side, and apply some irritating or stimulating 
agent to the nostrils, as veratrine, dilute ammonia, 
etc. — as snuff, or apply a feather to the throat. 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 153 

4th. Make the face warm by brisk friction; then dash 
cold water upon it. 

6th. If not successful, lose no time ; but to imitate 
RESPIRATION, place the patient on his face, and turn the 
body gently, but completely on the side, and a little 
BEYOND ; then again on the face, and so on alternately. 
Kepeat these movements deliberately and perseveringly 
FIFTEEN TIMES ONLY in a miuutc. (When the patient 
lies on the breast, this cavity is compressed by the 
weight of the body, and expiration takes place. When 
he is turned on the side this pressure is removed, and 
inspiration occurs.) 

6th. When the prone position is resumed, make a uni- 
form and efficient pressure along the spine, removing 
the pressure immediately, before rotation on the side. 
(The pressure augments the CcXpiration; the rotation 
commences inspiration.) Continue these measures. 

^th. Kub the limbs upw^ard with firm pressdre, 
and with energy. (The object being to aid the return 
of venous blood to the heart.) 

8th. Substitute for the patient's w^et clothing, if pos- 
sible, such other clothing as can be instantly procured, 
each bystander supplying a cdat or cloak, etc. Mean- 
time, and from time to time, to excite inspiration, 
let the surface of the body be slapped briskly with the 
hand. 

9th. Kub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, 
then dash cold water upon it, and repeat the rubbing. 

Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it in- 
volves a DANGEROUS LOSS OF TIME; also the use of bel- 
lows, or any forcing instrument; also the warm bath, 

and ALL ROUGH TREATMENT. Don't GIVE UP ! Pcoplc 

have been saved after hours of patient, vigorous work. 

SUiSr-STROKE. 

Take patient immediately into the shade ; place in a 
half recumbent position — head raised; loosen clothes 
about neck and chest; apply immediately, ice or cold wet 
cloths to the head and nape of the neck, changing them 
frequently, and hot water bottle to feet. 

Send for a physician as soon as possible. 

POISOiSrS AISTD ANTIDOTES. 

1st. — Send for a physician immediately. 

In all cases of poisoning, the first step is to evacuate 
the stomach. This should be effected by an emetic 
which is quickly obtained, and most powerful and speedy 
in its operation: such are — powdered mustard (a large 



154 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 

teaspoonful in a tumbler-full of water), or salt, or lialf- 
teaspoonful powdered ipecac every ten to fifteen minutes. 
When vomiting has already taken place, copious 
draughts of warm water, or warm mucilaginous drinks, 
should be given to keep up the effect till the poisoning 
substance has been thoroughly evacuated. If vomiting 
cannot be produced, the stomach-pump must be used. 
This instrument will be particularly useful when nar- 
cotics, in liquid form, have been taken. In cases of cor- 
rosive poisoning it is liable to lacerate the stomach. 

POISOIS^S. Al^TIDOTES. 

Acids. The alkalies: common soap (soft or hard), 

in solution, is a good remedy. It should 
be followed by copious draughts of tepid 
water or flaxseed tea. For nitric and ox- 
alic acids, chalk and water are the best 
antidotes. When sulphuric acid has been 
taken the use of much water is improper. 

Alkalies and The vegetable acids; common vinegar is 
thei}' Salts. most frequently used. Oils, as castor, 
flaxseed, almond and olive, form soaps 
with the alkalies and destroy their caus- 
tic effect; should be given in lay^ge quan- 
tities. 

Prussic Acid. Chlorine water, solution of chlorinated 
soda, aqua ammonia; cold effusion. 

Iodine — Iodide Starch, wheat flour, or arrow-root, in large 

of Potassium, quantities, well mixed with water; drink 

freely of them; afterward, strong mixture 

of vinegar and water. When this is done 

life will be saved. 

Antimony and Tartar Emetic. Astringent infusions, as 
its Salts. ■ of galls, oak bark, strong green tea. 

Arsenic and its Anj oil or fat (sweet oil, buttermilk); 
Compounds, magnesia in large quantities. 

Bismuth. . Albumen; copious draughts of milk, with 
sweet mucilaginous drinks. 

Copper and its Albumen, as milk or white of eggs in 
compounds, solution freely used, ferrocyanuret of 
Verdigris. potassium (freely). Yinegar must be 
avoided. 

Gold, Salts of. Sulphate of iron and mucilaginous drinks. 

Iron, Salts of. Carbonate of soda, mucilaginous drinks. 

Lead, Salts of . Albumen, Epsom salts, Glaubers salts; 
lemonade. 

Mercury, *Sa^^6' Albumen, as white of eggs, milk or wheat 
of — Corrosive flour beaten up with water; followed by 
Sublimate. an emetic. 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 155 

Poisons. Antidotes. 

Silver^ Salts of. Common salt, freely, in solution. 

Tin, Salts of. Albumen, white of eggs, milk, or flour. 

Zinc, Salt of. Albumen, or carbonate of soda, with 
copious draughts of warm water, and 
especially milk. 

Phosphorous. Magnesia with water, and copious draughts 
of mucilaginous drinks. 

Gases. Amixionia, cautiously inhaled, is recom- 

mended for chlorine. Asphyxia, from 
noxious gases, must be treated by cold 
effusions to the head, blood-letting, artifi- 
cial respiration and stimulants carefully 
administered. 

Creosote. White of eggs, milk, wheat flour. 

Alcohol. A powerful emetic to be given, followed 

by copious draughts of warm water. 

Opium — Mor- Use most active emetics — mustard, alum — 
phine — Z a i^cZa- stomach-pump; 2 drops tincture bella 
num — Strych- donna every hour, for three or four hours. 
nine. Patient must be kept in motion; slapped 

or flagellated ; cold water dashed on head 

and shoulders. 

Poison from Ivy. 

Ivy. Wash affected part with solution of sugar 

of lead, 20 grains to a pint of water. 

Snake-Bites. 

Snake-Bites. Suck the wound immediately; give stimu- 
lants even to intoxication, if there is pros- 
tration. 
Send for a physician in all cases. 

RULES FOR TREATMEiS^T OF CHOLERA. 

(Metropolitan Board of Health.) 

Cholera is almost invariably preceded by a painless 
diarrhoea, and this is in all cases to be promptly treated. 

Wiien diarrhoea is present, go to bed and maintain a 
position on the back; use abundance of blankets, and 
send for a physician. 

Stay in bed until you are well ; do not consider yourself 
well until you have had a natural movement from the 
bowels. Abstain from all drinks. Apply mustard 
plasters to the bowels. 

In the absence of a physician, an adult can take ten 
drops of laudanum, and ten drops of spirits of camphor. 
A child of ten years, may take five drops of laudanum 
and five of camphor. A child of five years, may take 



156 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 

three drops of laudanum and three of spirits of cam- 
phor; and these doses may be repeated every twenty 
minutes, so long as diarrhoea, or pain or vomiting con- 
tinues. 

This will save time, but in all cases send for a physician. 

Do not get up to pass the evacuations, but use the bed- 
pan or other conveniences. Never chill the surface of the 
body by getting out of bed. 

Kemove immediately all the evacuations from your 
rooms. Scald all the utensils used, or disinfect them 
with chloride of lime ; scald also your soiled clothing. 

DIAKRHGEA. 

Tincture of capsicum, 1 ounce; laudanum, i ounce. 
Mix. Dose for an adult, 40 drops (or half a teaspoonful) 
after each evacuation, in a little water; if there is much 
pain apply a mustard plaster to the stomach and bowels, 
or lay a cloth saturated with above mixture on parts, if 
mustard plaster is not readily procured. 

FEYER AND AGUE. 

Fever and ague is always preceded by an ague fit; has 
three stages: 1. The cold, when teeth chatter. 2. The 
hot, with high fever. 3. The sweating, when moisture 
appears and feeling of health returns. Consult a physi- 
cian. If one cannot be obtained, in cold stage give hot 
drinks, hot foot-bath, hot bottles to sides and limbs. 

In hot stage, give cooling drinks — ^ teaspoonful of 
sweet spirits of nitre in water, every two hours. 

During sweating stage, rub patient with a dry towel. 

In intermission between chills, give quinine in 2-grain 
doses every three hours; when ten doses are taken, then 
give 10 drops of the tincture of iron, three times a day 
for a week. Avoid the hot sun and damp evening and 
morning air. Where fever prevails, high hills and upper 
floors of dwellings are the healthiest. 

SUBSTANCES IN THE THROAT. 

A piece of food or some other substance often gets 
back into the mouth and cannot be swallowed. In such 
cases the finger will often be able to thrust it downward 
should that be thought best. A hair-pin, straightened 
and bent at the extremity, will often drag it out. If the 
body is firm in character, a pair of scissors, separated at 
the rivet, and one blade held by the point, will furnish a 
loop, which often can be made to extract it. 

See that everything put in the throat is perfectly clean. 
In case of a fish bone stuck in throat pieces of dry bread 
calmly swallowed will generally carry it downward, 
which is best, as it will be dissolved in stomach. 



FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 157 

lightn^i:n^g. 

Dash cold water over a person struck, until conscious. 

MAD DOG OR SNAKE BITE. 

Tie cord tight above the wound. Suck the wound, 
and cauterize with caustic or white-hot iron at once, or 
cut out adjoining parts with a sharp knife. 

VENOMOUS INSECTS, STINGS, ETC. 
Apply weak ammonia, oil, salt water or iodine. 

FAINTING. 

Place flat on back : allow fresh air, and sprinkle with 
water. Loosen anything tight around the neck. 

TESTS OF DEATH. 

Hold mirror to mouth; if living moisture will gather. 
Push pin into flesh; if dead the hole will remain, if alive 
it will close up. 

CINDERS IN THE EYE. . 

Roll soft paper up like a lamp lighter and wet the tip 
to remove, or use a medicine dropper to draw it out. 
Rub the other eye. 

FIRE IN ONE'S CLOTHING. 

Bon' t run, — especially not down sta^irs or out of doors. 
Roll on carpet, or w^rap in woolen rug or blanket. Xeep 
the head down, so as not to inhale flame. 

FIRE IN A BUILDING. 

Crawl on the floor. The clearest air is the lowest in 
the room. Cover head with a woolen wrap, wet if pos- 
sible. Cut holes for the eyes. Don't get excited. 

FIRE IN KEROSENE. 

DonH use water ^ it will spread the flames. Dirt, sand 
or flour is the best extinguisher ; or smother with woolen 
rug, table-cloth or carpet. 

SUFFOCATION FROM INHALING BURNING GAS. 

Get into the fresh air as soon as possible and lie down. 
Keep warm. Take ammonia, — twenty drops to a tumbler 
of water, at frequent intervals. 



168 FIRST AID TO THE INJURED. 

FOE DIARRHOEA. 

[Dr. Bradford.] 

Ext. haematoxyli (ext. logwood), 2 drams. 

Acid sulph. aromat. (aromatic sulphuric acid), 3 fluid 
drams. 

Tine, opii camph. (paregoric), 1^ fluid ounce. 

Syr. zinziberis q. s. ad (ginger syrup sufficient to make 
the measure) 6 fluid ounces. 

M. Sig. (Directions). One tablespoonful in water 
every 4 hours until relieved. 

PILES. 

Ointment of stramonium. 

CHAFING. 
Oxide of zinc mixed with vaseline to a white ointment. 

MEASURES BY SPOONFULS. 

One tea-spoonful = 1 fluid dram = 45 drops pure water. 

One dessert- spoonful = 2 fluid drams = 2 tea-spoonfuls. 

One table- spoonful = 4 fluid drams = 4 tea-spoonfuls, or 
2 dessert-spoonfuls, and is also equal to one-half of a fluid 
ounce. 

Two table-spoonfuls of course make one fluid ounce. 



POSTAL INFORHATION. 



DOMESTIC KATES OF POSTAGE. 

All mailable matter for transmission by the United 
States mails within the United States is divided into four 
classes, under the following regulations : — 

FIRST-CLASS MATTER. 

This class includes letters, postal cards, and anything 
sealed or closed against inspection, or anything contain- 
ing writing not allowed as an accompaniment to printed 
matter under class three. 

Rates of letter postage to any part of the United States, 
two cents per ounce or fraction thereof. 

Rates on local or drop letters at free delivery offices, 
two cents per ounce or fraction thereof. At offices where 
there is no free delivery by carriers, one cent per ounce 
or fraction thereof. 

Rates on postal cards, one cent. Nothing must be 
added or attached to a postal card, except that a printed 
address slip may be pasted on the address side. The 
addition of anything else subjects the card to letter post- 
age. A card containing any offensive dun or any scurri- 
lous or indecent communication will not be forwarded. 
Nothing but the address must be placed on the face or 
stamped side. 

Rates on specially delivered letters, ten cents on each 
letter in addition to the regular postage. This entitles 
the letter to immediate delivery by special messenger. 
Special delivery stamps are sold at post-offices, and must 
be affixed to such letters. An ordinary ten-cent stamp 
affixed to a letter will not entitle it to special delivery. 

Prepayment by stamps invariably required. Postage 
on all letters should be fiilli/ prepaid, but if prepaid one 
full rate, and no more, they will be forwarded, and the 
amount of deficient postage collected on delivery; if 
wholly unpaid, or prepaid with less than one full rate, 
and deposited at a post-office, the addressee will be noti- 
fied to remit postage, and if he fails to do so they will 
be sent to the Dead Letter Office; but they will be re- 

(159) 



160 POSTAL INFORMATION. 

turned to tlie sender if he is located at the place of mail- 
ing, and if his address be printed or written upon them. 

Letter rates are charged on all productions by the 
typewriter or manifold process. 

Letters (but no other class of mail matter) will be 
returned to the sender free, if a request to that effect is 
printed or written on the envelope. There is no limit to 
weight of first-class matter. 

Prepaid letters will be forwarded from one post-office 
to another upon the written request of person addressed 
without additional charge for postage. The direction 
on forwarded letters may be changed as many times as 
may be necessary to reach the person addressed. 

SECOKD-CLASS MATTEK. 

This class includes all newspapers, periodicals, or mat- 
ter exclusively in print, and regularly issued at stated 
intervals as frequently as four times a year, from a known 
office of publication or news agency, to actual subscriber 
or news agents, and transient newspapers and publica- 
tions of this character mailed by others than publishers. 

Kates of postage to publishers, one cent a pound, or 
fractional part thereof, prepaid by special stamps. Pub- 
lications designed primarily for advertising or free circu- 
lation, or not having a legitimate list of subscribers, are 
excluded from the pound rate, and pay third-class rates. 

Publications sent to actual subscribers in the county 
where published are free, unless mailed for local delivery 
at a letter-carrier office. 

Rates of postage on transient newspapers, magazines, 
or periodicals, one cent for each four ounces or fraction 
thereof. It should be observed that the rate is one cent 
for each four ounces, not one cent for each paper. These 
rates do not apply for transient publications mailed for 
local delivery by carriers at a Free Delivery Office. 

THIRD-CLASS MATTER. 

Mail matter of the third-class includes printed books, 
pamphlets, engravings, circulars (in print or by the 
hectograph, electric pen or similar process), and other 
matter wholly in print, proof-sheets, corrected proof- 
sheets, and manuscript copy accompanying the same. 

The rate on matter of this class is one cent for each 
two ounces or fraction thereof. 

Manuscript, unaccompanied by proof-sheets, must pay 
letter rates. 

Third-class matter must admit of easy inspection, 
otherwise it will be charged letter rates on delivery. It 
must be fully prepaid or it Avill not be forwarded. Its 



POSTAL INFORMATION". 161 

wrapper must bear no writing or printing except the 
name and address of«the sender and a return request. 

The limit of weight is four pounds, except single books 
in separate packages, on which the weight is not limited. 

The name and address of the sender, preceded by the 
word "from," may be written upon the package, and a 
simple manuscript dedication may appear in a book or 
upon the article enclosed. 

FOUKTH-CLASS MATTEK. 

Fourth- class matter is all mailable matter not included 
in the three preceding classes, which is so prepared for 
mailing as to be easily withdrawn from the wrapper and 
examined. It embraces merchandise and samples of 
every description, and coin or specie. 

Rate of postage, one cent for each ounce or fraction 
thereof (except seeds, roots, bulbs, cuttings, coins, and 
plants, the rate of which is one cent for each two ounces 
or fraction thereof). This matter must be fully prepaid, 
or it will not be forwarded. 

Articles of this class that are liable to deface the mails, 
such as glass, sugar, needles, nails, pens, etc., must first 
be wrapped in a bag, box, or open envelope, and then 
secured in an outside tube or box, made of metal or hard 
wood, without sharp corners or edges, and having a slid- 
ing clasp or screw lid, thus securing the articles in a 
double package. The public should bear in mind that 
the first object of the department is to transport the 
mails safely, and every other interest is made subor- 
dinate. 

Such articles as poisons, explosives, or inflammable 
articles, live animals, insects, or substances exhaling a 
bad odor, will not be forwarded in any case. 

The regulations respecting the mailing of liquids are 
as follows: Liquids, not ardent, vinous, spirituous, or 
malt, and not liable to explosion, spontaneous combus- 
tion, or ignition by shock or jar, and not inflammable 
(such as kerosene, naphtha or turpentine), may be admit- 
ted to the mails for transportation within the United 
States. When contained in glass bottles or vials, such 
bottles or vials must be strong enough to withstand the 
shock of handling in the mails, and must be enclosed in 
a wooden or papier-mache block or tube not less than 
three-sixteenths of an inch thick in the thinnest part, 
strong enough to withstand the weight of mails piled in 
bags, and resist rough handling; and there must be pro- 
vided, between the bottle and its wooden case, a cushion 
of cork crumbs, cotton, felt, asbestos, or some other 
absorbent, sufficient to protect the glass from shock in 
handling; the block or tube to be closed by a tightly- 
fitting screw-lid of wood or metal, with a rubber or other 



162 POSTAL INFORMATION. 

band so adjusted as to make the block or tube water- 
tight, and to prevent the leakage of the contents in case 
of breaking of the glass. When inclosed in a tin cylin- 
der, metal case or tube, such cylinder, case, or tube 
should have a screv^-lid with a rubber or cork cushion 
inside in order to make the same water-tight, and should 
be securely fastened in a wooden or papier-mache block 
(open at one end only) and not less in thickness and 
strength than above prescribed. It would be well always 
to consult the postmaster in reference to the proposed 
mailing of liquids. The limit of admissible liquids and 
oils is not exceeding four ounces, liquid measure. 

Limit of weight of fourth- class matter (excepting 
liquids), four pounds. 

The name and address of the sender, preceded by the 
word "from," also the names and number (quantity) of 
the articles enclosed, may be written on the wrapper of 
fourth-class matter without additional postage charge. 
A request to the delivering postmaster may also be writ- 
ten, asking him to return the package if not delivered. 

KEGISTRATIOK. 

All kinds of postal matter, except second-class matter, 
can be registered at the rate of ten cents for each pack- 
age in addition to the regular rates of postage, to be 
fully prepaid by- stamps. Each package must bear the 
name and address of the sender, and a receipt will be 
returned from the person to whom addressed. 

The Post-Office Department or its revenue is not by 
law liable for the loss of any registered mail matter. 

MONEY ORDERS. 

Domestic money orders are issued by money-order 
post-offices for any amount up to $100, at the following 
rates : 

For sums not exceeding $5, ^ve cents; for $5 to $10, 
eight cents; for $10 to $15, 10 cents; for $15 to $30, fifteen 
cents; for $30 to $40, twenty cents; for $40 to $50, twenty- 
five cents; for $50 to $60, thirty cents; for $60 to $70, 
thirty- five cents; for $70 to $80, forty cents; for $80 to 
$100, forty-five cents. 

When more tlian $100 is required additional orders 
must be obtained, but not more than three orders will 
be issued in one day to the same payee, payable at the 
same office. 

POSTAL NOTES. 

These will be issued for sums less than $5, for a fee of 
three cents, and are payable to any person presenting 
them, either at the office designated on the note, or at 
the office of issue within three months of date of issue. 



POSTAL INFORMATION. 163 



LETTER-SHEET ENVELOPES. 

The Post- Office Departnient now issues a combined 
letter-sheet and envelope of the denomination of two 
cents. The prices are as follows : one, three cents ; two, 
five cents; five, twelve cents; ten, twenty-three cents; 
one hundred, $2.30; one thousand, $23. 

STAMPED ENVELOPES. 

Embossed, stamped envelopes and newspaper wrap- 
pers of several denominations, sizes and colors, are kept 
on sale at post-offices, singly or in quantities, at a small 
advance on the postage rate. 



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Repauno Ghemigal Company, 



MANUFACTURERS OF 



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JuDSON Powder. 



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Special Fuineless Gelatine PoiderSj 



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GUARANTEED TO GIVE SATISFACTION. 



^ GENERAL OFFICES: 



WILMINGTON, DEL. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



028 137 871 5 



Powder Co 



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